Valence

Subject : Heavy Metal Toxin
Unit : I
Title : Valence
Valence
In chemistry, valence, also known as valency or valency
number, is a measure of the number of chemical bonds
formed by the atoms of a given element.
Over the last century, the concept of valence evolved into valence
bond theory (1927) and then into modern valence bond theory
(1990s).
The etymology of the word "valence" is from 1425, meaning
"extract, preparation," from Latin valentia "strength, capacity," and
the chemical meaning referring to the "combining power of an
element" is recorded from 1884, from German Valenz.
Lecturer N.Muthukrishnan, CARISM, SASTRA University
Unit : I
Title : Valence
Franklin declares how obvious it is that:

A tendency or law prevails (here), and that,
no matter what the characters of the uniting
atoms may be, the combining power of the
attracting element, if one may be allowed the
term, is always satisfied by the same number
of these atoms.This combining power was
afterwards called quantivalence or valency
(and valence by American chemists).
This combining power was afterwards called
quantivalence or valency (and valence by American chemists).
Unit : I
Title : Valence
In 1919, Irving Langmuir, borrowed the term to

explain Gilbert Lewis's cubical atom model by stating
that "the number of pairs of electrons which any given
atom shares with the adjacent atoms is called the
covalence of that atom."
The prefix co-, e.g. co-author, means together, jointly,

associated in action, partnered to a lesser degree,
etc.,; thus a co-valent bond, essentially, means that the
atoms share valence.
Unit : I
Title : Valence
Hence, if an atom, for example, had a +1 valence,

meaning it was missing an electron, and another a
-1 valence, meaning it had an extra electron, then a
bond between these two atoms would result
because they would be complementing or sharing
theirs out of balance valence tendencies.
Subsequently, it is now more common to speak of
covalent bonds rather than "valence", which has
fallen out of use in higher level work.
Unit : I
Title : Valence
"Number of bonds" definition

The number of bonds formed by a given element was
originally thought to be a fixed chemical property and
in fact, in many cases, this is a good approximation.
For example, in virtually all of their compounds, carbon
forms four bonds, oxygen two and hydrogen one.
However it soon became apparent that, for many
elements, the valence could vary between different
compounds.
Unit : I
Title : Valence
One of the first examples to be identified was

phosphorus, which sometimes behaves as if it has
a valence of three and sometimes as if it has a
valence of five.
One method around this problem is to specify the
valence for each individual compound: although it
removes much of the generality of the concept, this
approach has given rise to the idea of oxidation
numbers (used in Stock nomenclature) and to
lambda notation in the IUPAC nomenclature of
inorganic chemistry.
Unit : I
Title : Valence
IUPAC definition
The International Union of Pure and Applied
Chemistry (IUPAC) has made several attempts to
arrive at an unambiguous definition of valence.
The current version, adopted in 1994, is:
The maximum number of univalent atoms
(originally hydrogen or chlorine atoms) that
may combine with an atom of the element
under consideration, or with a fragment, or
for which an atom of this element can be
substituted.
Unit : I
Title : Valence
This definition reimposes a unique valence for each

element at the expense of neglecting, in many
cases, a large part of its chemistry.
The mention of hydrogen and chlorine is for
historic reasons, although both in practice mostly
form compounds in which their atoms form a
single bond.
Unit : I
Title : Valence
Chlorine forms a number of fluoridesClF, ClF3

and ClF5and its valence according to the IUPAC
definition is hence five.
Fluorine is the element for which the largest
number of atoms combine with atoms of other
elements: it is univalent in all compounds except
the ion [H2F]+.
In fact, the IUPAC definition can only be resolved

by fixing the valences of hydrogen and fluorine as
one, a convention which has been followed here.
Unit : I
Title : Valence
Valency based on hydrogen affinity
Hydrogen is the simplest element.

It has one electron.
Its outer shell only holds two electrons.
The table below lists the simplest compound of

selected elements with Hydrogen.

Atomic Number
Unit : I
Atom
Title : Valence
Symbol
Outer Shell
H Compound
Hydrogen
H2
Helium
He
Full
None
Lithium
Li
LiH
Beryllium
Be
BeH2
Boron
BH3
Carbon
CH4
Nitrogen
NH3
Oxygen
H2O
Fluorine
HF
10
Neon
Ne
Full
None
11
Sodium
Na
NaH
12
Magnesium
Mg
MgH2
13
Aluminium
Al
AlH3
14
Silicon
Si
SiH4
15
Phosphorus
PH3
16
Sulphur
H2S
17
Chlorine
Cl
HCl
18
Argon
Ar
Full
None
19
Potasium
KH
20
Calcium
Ca
CaH2
Unit : I
Title : Valence
Valency can be simply defined as the number of

Hydrogen atoms that an element can combine with.
In the above table, Helium, Neon and Argon have a
valency of 0. They do not normally form compounds.
Lithium, Sodium and Potasium have a valency of 1
because they combine with one Hydrogen atom.
Beryllium, Magnesium and Calcium all have a
valency of 2: they combine with two Hydrogen
atoms.
Unit : I
Title : Valence
Boron and Aluminium combine with three

Hydrogen atoms - their valences are 3 - and they
have three outer electrons.
Carbon and Silicon combine with four Hydrogen
atoms. The valency of these elements is 4. It will
come as no surprise that they both have four outer
electrons.
Unit : I
Title : Valence
What about Nitrogen and Phosphorus?

They have five outer electrons. But they
normally only combine with three Hydrogen
atoms. Their valences are 3.
Note that 3 is 5 less that 8.
These atoms are three electrons short of a full
shell.
Both Nitrogen and Phosphorus can also have a
valency of 5.
Unit : I
Title : Valence
Some atoms are capable of having more than

one valency.
Oxygen and Sulphur, both have six outer electrons.
Six is two short of a full shell.
Their normal valences are 2 and they combine with
two atoms of Hydrogen.
Sulphur can also have a valency of 6 (or even 4)

in some of its compounds.
Finally, Fluorine and Chlorine - seven outer
electrons.
This is one short of a full shell.
Unit : I
Title : Valence
They both combine with a single Hydrogen atom

and their normal valences are 1.
As a side note, Chlorine can also have
valences of 3, 5 and 7.
The rules above can be summarised as follows:
The normal valency of an atom is equal to the
number of outer electrons if that number is
four or less.
Otherwise, the valency is equal to 8 minus the
number of outer electrons.
Unit : I
Title : Valence
The atoms with full electron shells (Helium, Neon,

Argon) are chemically inert forming few
compounds.
The atoms don't even interact with each other very
much.
These elements are gases with very low boiling
points.
Unit : I
Title : Valence
The atoms with a single outer electron or a single

missing electron are all highly reactive.
Sodium is more reactive than Magnesium.
Chlorine is more reactive than Oxygen.
Generally speaking, the closer an atom is to having a
full electron shell, the more reactive it is.
Atoms with one outer electron are more reactive than
those with two outer electrons, etc.
Atoms that are one electron short of a full shell are
more reactive than those that are two short.
Unit : I
Title : Valence
Valences of the elements

Valences for the majority of elements are based on the highest
known fluoride.
Group 1
Period
1
1
H
3
2
Li
11
3
Na
19
4
K
37
5
Rb
55
6
Cs
87
7
Fr
4
Be
12
Mg
20
Ca
38
Sr
56
Ba
88
Ra
21
Sc
39
Y
*
22
Ti
40
Zr
72
Hf
** 104
Rf
23
V
41
Nb
73
Ta
105
Db
57
La
89
** Actinides
Ac
58
Ce
90
Th
* Lanthanides
24
Cr
42
Mo
74
W
106
Sg
25
Mn
43
Tc
75
Re
107
Bh
26
Fe
44
Ru
76
Os
108
Hs
27
Co
45
Rh
77
Ir
109
Mt
10
11
28
Ni
46
Pd
78
Pt
110
Ds
29
Cu
47
Ag
79
Au
111
Rg
59 60 61 62 63
Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu
91 92 93 94 95
Pa U Np Pu Am
64
Gd
96
Cm
12
30
Zn
48
Cd
80
Hg
112
Uub
13
5
B
13
Al
31
Ga
49
In
81
Tl
113
Uut
14
6
C
14
Si
32
Ge
50
Sn
82
Pb
114
Uuq
15
7
N
15
P
33
As
51
Sb
83
Bi
115
Uup
16
8
O
16
S
34
Se
52
Te
84
Po
116
Uuh
65 66 67 68 69
Tb Dy Ho Er Tm
97 98 99 100 101
Bk Cf Es Fm Md
17
18
2
He
9 10
F Ne
17 18
Cl Ar
35 36
Br Kr
53 54
I Xe
85 86
At Rn
117 118
Uus Uuo
70
Yb
102
No
71
Lu
103
Lr
Unit : I
Title : Valence
Valences
Zero
One
Two
Three
Four
Five
Six
Seven
A white background indicates that the

chemistry of the element is not known
sufficiently for a valence to be assigned.
Unit : I
Title : Valence
Other criticisms of the concept of valence

The valence of an element is not always equal to its highest
oxidation state: exceptions include ruthenium, osmium and
xenon, which have valences of six (hexafluorides) but which
form compounds with oxygen in the +8 oxidation state, and
chlorine, which has a valence of five but a highest oxidation
state of +7 (in perchlorates).
The concept of "combination" cannot be equated with the
number of bonds formed by an atom. In lithium fluoride (which
has the NaCl structure), each lithium atom is surrounded by six
fluorine atoms, whereas the valence of lithium is universally
taken to be one, as the formula LiF would suggest.
Unit : I
Title : Valence
Quantum Mechanics
The electrons that determine the properties of the

atom and the way it combines with other atoms to
form specific compounds.
Because of considerations due to Quantum
Mechanics, electrons cannot orbit the nucleus of an
atom in any orbit.
The electrons are restricted to specific paths called

orbitals or shells.
Unit : I
Title : Valence
According to an atomic rule that goes by the name

of the Pauli Exclusion Principle, Each shell can
only hold a certain number of electrons.
When a shell is full, no more electrons can go into
that shell.
The whole subject of electron shells is very
complex.
For the purposes of understanding the first three
shells have been taken here.
Unit : I
Title : Valence
The electron shells are given letters.

The table below has the details we will use in this
discussion.
Shell
Maximum
Number of
Electrons
Unit : I
Title : Valence
Hydrogen has only one electron so that will go into the

s shell.
Helium has two electrons. Both of these will go into
the s shell.
We have Lithium with three electrons, two go into the
s shell and the s shell can only hold two electrons, so
the third electron goes into the p shell.
Unit : I
Title : Valence
This can best be illustrated in the table below.

Atom
Symbol
Atomic Number
s Shell
p Shell
d Shell
f Shell
Hydrogen
Helium
He
Lithium
Li
Beryllium
Be
Boron
Carbon
Nitrogen
Oxygen
Fluorine
Neon
Ne
10
Sodium
Na
11
Magnesium
Mg
12
Aluminium
Al
13
Silicon
Si
14
Phosphorus
15
Sulphur
16
Chlorine
Cl
17
Argon
Ar
18
Potasium
19
Calcium
Ca
20
Unit : I
Title : Valence
Following these rules we can build up the electron shell

structure of all the atoms.
Note: There are many references to the THIRD shell

allowing a maximum of 18 electrons, rather than the 8
shown here.
There are complexities within atomic physics which are
not explored in this "primer."
The key to the properties of atoms is the electrons in the
outer shell.
Unit : I
Title : Valence
Electrovalent Bonds
Now look at the combination of the Lithium atom (Li) with
Flourine (F) to form the compound Lithium Fluoride
(LiF).
The drawing below shows the two atoms before they react
together.
Unit : I
Title : Valence
The Lithium has its single outer electron and the

Fluorine has seven outer electrons, or a single
electron missing in its outer shell.
When these two atoms come together, it provides
an easy way for each to get a complete outer shell
of electrons.
Lithium atom jumps across and joins the seven
electrons in the outer shell of the Fluorine atom.
Lithium and Fluorine then have a complete outer
shell of electrons.
Unit : I
Title : Valence
This is a more stable arrangement for each atom.

However, the Lithium atom has one too few
negatively charged electrons to balance its
positively charged protons in its nucleus.
The Lithium atom now has a net positive charge.

The Fluorine atom now has one too many electrons.
It has a net negative charge.
Atoms that have charges are called ions.
Unit : I
Title : Valence
We have a positively charged Lithium ion and a

negatively charged Fluorine ion.
These attract each other because opposite charges
attract.
Unit : I
Title : Valence
Lithium Flouride consists of a regular stack of Lithium

and Fluorine ions held together by strong electrostatic
forces.
The regularity of the structure can be seen by the fact
that the compound is a crystaline solid.
The stability by the fact that it has a high melting point.
Similar compounds are Sodium Chloride (NaCl,
common salt) and Potassium Fluoride (KF).
These all involve the transfer of a single electron from
one atom to another.
Unit : I
Title : Valence
Two electrons can also be transferred as in the

compounds Calcium Fluoride (CaF2) and
Magnesium Chloride (MgCl2).
In these compounds, the outer two electrons of the
Calcium or Magnesium are transferred to two
Fluorine or Chlorine atoms.
In compounds like Sodium Sulphide (Na2S) or
Potassium Oxide (K2O), two atoms of Sodium or
Potassium each transfer their single outer electrons
to the one atom of Sulphur or Oxygen.
Unit : I
Title : Valence
Compounds like these are held together by

Electrovalent or Ionic bonds.
They tend to be crystaline solids with high melting
points.
They are usually soluble in water and the solution
conducts electricity because the ions can move
easily in solution.
Transferring electrons is not the only way that
atoms can combine.
Unit : I
Title : Valence
Covalent Bonds
Let us look at the combination of two Hydrogen
atoms with an atom of Oxygen.
These appear below.
Unit : I
Title : Valence
The Oxygen is two electrons short of a full outer

shell.
The Hydrogen atoms need to gain an extra
electron to complete their outer shell which can
hold two electrons.
Transferring electrons would require too much
energy in this case.
What happens is that the electrons are shared.
Unit : I
Title : Valence
The Oxygen shares one of its electrons with the

first Hydrogen atom and another with the second
Hydrogen atom.
The Oxygen atom then has eight electrons
orbiting it: equivalent to a full outer shell.
Each Hydrogen atom shares an electron with the
Oxygen atom, thereby having two.
The diagram below shows this.
Unit : I
Title : Valence
Unit : I
Title : Valence
This produces a molecule of water.

Molecules are discrete entities which have strong
bonds between the atoms.
Molecules themselves only stick together loosely.
This type of bond is a called a Covalent Bond.

These types of compounds tend to have low melting
points. H2O (water) is a liquid at room temperature.
They tend not to conduct electricity.
Unit : I
Title : Valence
Other examples of Covalent compounds are

Carbon Dioxide (CO2 - each Oxygen atom shares
two electrons with the Carbon atom) and
Ammonia (NH3 - each Hydrogen atom shares its
electron with the Nitrogen atom).
Both of these are gases at room temperature.
Many Organic compounds are covalent.
Unit : I
Title : Valence
Many elements have several possible valences

Sulfur, for example, usually has a valence of 2 (as in H2S).
But in some compounds, it has a valence of four (as in the highly reactive
compound SF4) or even six (as in SF6, which is one of the most inert
chemical compounds known).
So the formulas of compounds guessed using the most common valences
of elements are not always correct.
Every atom should have an even number of electrons and protons, which
should give it a neutral charge.
In reality some atoms have more, or less, electrons than they should have.
Sulfur forms a covalent bond with itself because sulfur has 6 electrons in its outer
valence shell. when putting two sulfurs together they share two pairs of electrons to
achieve a full valence shell (8 electrons). So sulfur doesn't form a covalent bond, its
forms a double covalent bond with itself.
Unit : I
Title : Valence
For one type of atom, this can vary from one molecule to another.
If you put four Sulphur atoms together then the whole molecule usually has
two extra electrons (Valence 2-)
Since sulfur has valencies of 2, 4, and 6, the sulfur dioxide molecule could
be formulated as (I) or (II):
Formula (II) is accepted because sulfur
dioxide does not behave like a
peroxide, and microwave spectroscopy
gives the OSO angle as 119.5 and
the SO distance as 1.43 .
The latter is similar to the distance in
molecules that have to be written with
a double SO bond, e.g. 1.45 in
SOCl2.
Three-membered rings, with angles of
60, are unusual in molecules.
Unit : I
Title : Valence
Valence Calculation Summary:

Valency is a number that indicates the ability of a chemical element to
combine with other elements.
Valence was first defined as the number of hydrogen atoms that can
combine with each atom of an element. One oxygen atom combines with
two hydrogen atoms to form a water molecule. Therefore, oxygen has a
valence of 2.
A second definition of valence is based on the charges of ionised atoms.
Sodium ions have one positive charge, so the valence of sodium is 1.
A third definition is based on the number of bonds (chemical links) that an
atom forms with other atoms. Carbon atoms usually form 4 bonds, as in
methane. Hence, carbon is said to have a valence of 4.
The theory of valency supposes that, in the formation of compounds, atoms
attempt to achieve the nearest noble gas configuration. This electronic
theory recognises the stability of the noble (or inert) gases.
Unit : I
Title : Valence
The valence could vary between different compounds.

One of the best example identified was phosphorus, which
sometimes behaves as if it has a valence of three and sometimes as
if it has a valence of five.
One method around the problem is to specify the valence for each
individual compound: although it removes much of the generality of
the concept, this approach has given rise to the idea of oxidation
numbers and to lambda notation in the IUPAC nomenclature of
organic chemistry.
Unit : I
Title : Valence
bond valence oxidation method

The bond valence method (or bond valence sum) is a popular method
in coordination chemistry to estimate the oxidation states of atoms.
The basic idea is that the valence V of an atom is the sum of the
individual bond valences vi surrounding the atom:
The individual bond valences in turn are calculated from the observed
bond lengths.
Ri is the observed bond length, R0 is tabulated Value, and b is a

constant, typically 0.37 .
Unit : I
Title : Valence
The bond valence approach

The use of empirical correlations between the bond length
and strength of chemical bonds in crystal chemistry dates
back to the work of Bystrm & Wilhelmi (1951).
BV concept that it does not require an a priori distinction
between covalent and ionic types of bonding.
Thus, the terms `cation' and `anion' in this context simply

classify the particles according to their electronegativity and
are equivalent to Lewis acids and bases.
Unit : I
Title : Valence
The monotonic decrease of the bond valence sA-X with bond

length RA-X between a cation A and an anion X may be
approximated as
Some of the early investigations preferred the power law ansatz
mostly because of the slightly reduced computational effort. The

empirical parameters R0 and b (or R0 and N) are chosen to ensure that
the expectancy value for the bond-valence sum V(A) of the cation A for
bonds to all its coordinating anions X
equals the formal valence Videal(A).

Unit : I
Title : Valence
Hypothesis about that the bond-valence parameter b may be treated as a

universal constant, a significant refinement of the two highly correlated
BV parameters b and R0 was generally hard to achieve and often
impossible. Thus, Brown & Altermatt (1985) suggested keeping b to the
universal value of 0.37 and to refine R0 only.
Over the last decades bond-valence sum calculations have become a
valuable tool in crystal structure determinations for the localization of light
atoms from X-ray data, the distinction of isoelectronic ions (such as Al(III)
from Si(IV)) or as a quick check for the plausibility of a structure solution.
Following a suggestion by Ray et al. (1979), these authors interpreted the

values of R0(ij) as the sum of atomic radii of the atoms i and j modified by
an electronegativity related correction term
Thereby it became possible to estimate R0 even for atom pairs, where no

experimental data were available.
Unit : I
Title : Valence
In order to illustrate the consequences of the approximation of a

universal parameter b, it may be helpful to rewrite the monotonic
correlation between bond length RA-X and bond valence sA-X into a
pseudopotential of the bond-valence deviation sA-X .
where sideal represents the bond-valence contribution from

a single bond that would give rise to a total valence sum
V(A) = Videal(A).
Ex: Hardness eV, Softness 1/eV,
Pb(0+) Hardness eV=3.52645 eV,

Electronegativity eV,
Cation mass amu
O(2-) Hardness eV=6.07815eV

S(2-) Hardness eV=4.14365eV
F(1-) Hardness eV=7.01145eV
Cl(1-) Hardness eV=4.67534eV
Br(1-) Hardness eV=4.225015eV
Arsenic (As)
Unit : I
Title : Valence
Heavy Metals with different valence
The most common and stable forms of arsenic in nature are arsenite arsenic (+3), and arsenate - arsenic (+5). Others are -3, 0, +2.
Arsenic (+3) is arsenic with three fewer electrons than protons, giving it
a plus three positive charge; arsenic (+5) is arsenic with five fewer
electrons than protons, giving it a plus five positive charge.
These two forms can be readily converted back and forth both in nature
and inside our bodies depending on the local chemical environment such as changes in acidity (pH), the presence of oxygen or iron, and
what other molecules are present.
Arsenite is believed to be slightly more toxic than arsenate, but since
they are so easily inter-converted, both forms are considered a health
risk.
Arsenic +5, +3 valancies has a particular affinity for sulfur and is often
found joined to sulfur in ores.
Unit : I
Title : Valence
Few examples
Arsenic trioxide is an element like carbon and oxygen it does not break
down in the environment into simpler substances.
Inorganic forms of arsenic are more toxic to humans since they are less
stable and may allow arsenic to interact with important cellular molecules.
Recently, scientists have found that a simple methylated form of arsenic
called mono-methylarsenic (III) can cause cancer in animals. On the other
hand, fish and other animals contain a highly methylated form of arsenic
called arsenobetaine or "fish arsenic" which is essentially non-toxic and is
readily eliminated by our bodies.
In the early 1990s, an unprecedented arsenic poisoning in Bangladesh
brought international attention to the toxic effects of naturally occurring
arsenic in drinking water.
Tobacco itself contained high levels of arsenic until recently, due to the
extensive use of arsenic-based pesticides in tobacco farming.
Unit : I
Title : Valence
Chromium
Chromium, a "transition" metal, is of intermediate atomic weight Common
forms are chromium-0, which has no charge, chromium +2, +3, and +6,
which has charges of plus 2, 3, 6 respectively.
Chrome metal (the form chromium-0) is the element that makes steel
"stainless."
The primary form of chromium found in the environment is chromium+3,
which is also quite stable. This common form of chromium is always
found in a complex with other chemical partners such as oxygen or
chlorine. In these compounds it is very "inert to substitution.
Chromium+6 is easily and rapidly reduced to chromium+3 by many
chemicals and conditions, so it is not very stable in the environment. Like
chromium+3, chromium+6 is usually found in chemical complexes with
other elements, for example bound with several oxygen atoms to form
chromate.
Unit : I
Title : Valence
Humans need chromium, in the form of chromium+3, for proper health.

However, most people get all the daily chromium they need from a normal,
well-balanced diet.
Investigators found that chromium+6 crosses cell membranes and gets into
the cell much more easily than chromium+3, Once inside cells,
chromium+6 can damage DNA, the hereditary material of the cell, and this
damage can lead to mutations. Mutations in certain cancer-associated
genes of the cell are believed to be the basis for initiating cancer.
The fluids include saliva, stomach and intestinal fluids, lung fluids, mucus,
blood, and the layers of the skin. All these protective mechanisms reduce
chromium+6 on the outside of cells, preventing its uptake. It has also been
proposed that reduction of chromium+6 in the intestines, in the presence of
amino acids, leads to formation of the natural form of chromium+3 that the
body uses, which may lead to enhanced uptake of this form.
Unit : I
Title : Valence
Iron
In an aqueous or watery solution, iron can form two stable ions or charged
particles.
These particles, Fe II and Fe III, have positive charges of +2 and +3
respectively.
These large positive charges (+3) makes them ideal for making and breaking
bonds.
For this reason, iron is a key component in numerous enzymes in the body.
When iron enters the body through food or drink, it must be metabolized
chemically processed and delivered to the blood.
At a pH of 7 (the normal pH of human blood is pH 7.4) iron readily ionizes
into the Fe II and Fe III forms and then quickly combines with hydrogen and
oxygen.
This series of reactions makes the metal biologically unavailable.
Transferrin's particular chemical configuration grabs iron and safely protects
it from any further chemical changes.

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Subject : Heavy Metal Toxin

Subject : Heavy Metal Toxin

Franklin declares how obvious it is that:

Subject : Heavy Metal Toxin

In 1919, Irving Langmuir, borrowed the term to

The prefix co-, e.g. co-author, means together, jointly,

Lecturer N.Muthukrishnan, CARISM, SASTRA University

Subject : Heavy Metal Toxin

Hence, if an atom, for example, had a +1 valence,

Lecturer N.Muthukrishnan, CARISM, SASTRA University

Subject : Heavy Metal Toxin

"Number of bonds" definition

Subject : Heavy Metal Toxin

One of the first examples to be identified was

Subject : Heavy Metal Toxin

Subject : Heavy Metal Toxin

This definition reimposes a unique valence for each

Lecturer N.Muthukrishnan, CARISM, SASTRA University

Subject : Heavy Metal Toxin

Chlorine forms a number of fluoridesClF, ClF3

In fact, the IUPAC definition can only be resolved

Subject : Heavy Metal Toxin

Valency based on hydrogen affinity

Hydrogen is the simplest element.

The table below lists the simplest compound of

Subject : Heavy Metal Toxin

Lecturer N.Muthukrishnan, CARISM, SASTRA University

Subject : Heavy Metal Toxin

Valency can be simply defined as the number of

Subject : Heavy Metal Toxin

Boron and Aluminium combine with three

Lecturer N.Muthukrishnan, CARISM, SASTRA University

Subject : Heavy Metal Toxin

What about Nitrogen and Phosphorus?

Subject : Heavy Metal Toxin

Some atoms are capable of having more than

Sulphur can also have a valency of 6 (or even 4)

Subject : Heavy Metal Toxin

They both combine with a single Hydrogen atom

Subject : Heavy Metal Toxin

The atoms with full electron shells (Helium, Neon,

Lecturer N.Muthukrishnan, CARISM, SASTRA University

Subject : Heavy Metal Toxin

The atoms with a single outer electron or a single

Subject : Heavy Metal Toxin

Valences of the elements

Lecturer N.Muthukrishnan, CARISM, SASTRA University

Subject : Heavy Metal Toxin

A white background indicates that the

Subject : Heavy Metal Toxin

Other criticisms of the concept of valence

Subject : Heavy Metal Toxin

The electrons that determine the properties of the

The electrons are restricted to specific paths called

Subject : Heavy Metal Toxin

According to an atomic rule that goes by the name

Subject : Heavy Metal Toxin

The electron shells are given letters.

Lecturer N.Muthukrishnan, CARISM, SASTRA University

Subject : Heavy Metal Toxin

Hydrogen has only one electron so that will go into the

Lecturer N.Muthukrishnan, CARISM, SASTRA University

Subject : Heavy Metal Toxin

This can best be illustrated in the table below.