b1 - Intro Noise - Comm Theorem

SZE 3533
COMMUNICATION PRINCIPLE
By
Mohd Taufik Bin Jusoh @ Tajudin
Topic 1
Introduction to Communication
System
1.0 Introduction
“How do you want to send data/information to
someone who is far from you?”
“If the information that you want to send is your

voice, how to make sure that what you are
saying is understood by your friend?”
“What is the source and technology available

surround you that can help?”
2
Pengenalan Kepada Sistem Perhubun
1.1 Communication System History
• 1837 – Samuel Morse invented telegraph.
• 1858 – First telegraph cable across Atlantic (Canada – Ireland)
• 1876 – Alexander Graham Bell invented telephone.
• 1988 – Heinrich Hertz introduce electromagnetic field theory.
• 1897 – Marconi invented wireless telegraph.
• 1906 – Radio communication system was invented.
• 1923 – Television was invented.
• 1938 – Radar and microwave system was invented for World War II.
• 1950 – TDM was invented.
• 1956 – First telephone cable was installed across Atlantic.
• 1960 – Laser was invented
• 1962 – Satellite communication
• 1969 – Internet DARPA
• 1970 – Corning Glass invented optical fiber.
• 1975 – Digital telephone was introduced.
• 1985 – Facsimile machine.
• 1988 – Installation of fiber optic cable across Pacific and Atlantic.
• 1990 – World Wide Web and Digital Communication.
• 1998 – Digital Television.
3
1.2 Communication System
• Communication system – Process of sending information
signal from one point to another point - involve 3 important
processes ie:
Transmission
Receiving
Processing
• Eg: Telegraphy, telephony, facsimile, radio, satellite, optical
fiber system, cellular mobile.
mtx (t) mrx (t)

s(t) Input Comm Output r(t)
Transducer System Transducer
Fig. 1.1 Basic communication system
• Analog System: Information signal is analog signal and

sensitive to noise.
• Digital System: Information signal can be digital or analogue
signal (through discrete process) and less sensitive to noise. 4
1.3 Types of Signal
• Signal Classification:
– Continuous-time and discrete-time Aperiodic signal: Unit pulse signal
– Analog and digital
– Periodic and Aperiodic
Periodic : x(t)=x(t+To)
Aperiodic: x(t) – no repetition, eg: audio signal
An example of a periodic signal is a sinusoidal signal:
x (t ) = A sin( 2πf ot +θ )
Periodic signal: A sinusoidal signal
2π 1
ω0 = 2πf 0 ; T0 = =
ω0 f0
2π  2π 
x (t + ) = A sin ω0 (t + ) + θ  = A sin(ω0t + 2π + θ )
ω0  ω0 
= A[ sin(ω0t + θ ) cos( 2π ) + cos(ω0t + θ ) sin( 2π )]
But cos(2 π ) =1 and sin(2 π )=0
2π
x (t + ) = A sin( ω0t +θ ) = x(t )
ω0
5
g(t) g(t)
t
Analog, continuous-time Digital, continuous-time
g(t) g(t)
Analog, discrete-time Digital, discrete-time
6
1.3.1 Harmonic signal
7
8
1.4 Basic Communication System
wired / wireless
mtx (t) ptx (t) prx (t) mrx (t)
Input Transmitter Transmission Output
Receiver
Transducer Medium Transducer
s(t) r(t)
Noise n(t)
s(t) – Input signal; audio, video, image, data etc.

mtx (t) – Modulating signal; input signal that has been converted to electrical
signal.
ptx (t) – Modulated signal transmit by the transmitter.
n(t) – Noise signal.
prx (t) – Modulated signal receive by the receiver.
mrx (t) – Modulating signal at the receiver.
r(t) – Output signal. 9
1.4.1 Component Function in Basic
Communication System
• Input Transducer – convert input signal, s(t) in electrical forms. eg:
microphone.
• Transmitter – involve modulation process – convert modulating signal,

mtx(t) to modulated signal, ptx(t). And finally transmit the signal.
• Transmission medium – connecting the transmitter and the receiver

that enable the modulated signal, ptx(t) propagate through the medium.
• Receiver – receive the modulated signal, prx(t) and then convert the
signal to modulating signal, mrx(t) through the process called
demodulation.
• Output Transducer – convert the modulating signal, mrx(t) to its original

forms (output signal), r(t) that is useful to the users. eg: loud speaker.
10
1.5 Transmission Medium (Guided)
Kabel Terpiuh (Twisted pair)
– Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)
– Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)
Kabel Sepaksi (Coaxial)
Kabel Gentian Optik (Fiber Optic)

– Singlemode step index
– Multimode step index
– Multimode graded index
Pandu Gelombang (Waveguide)
11
1.6 Transmission Medium (Unguided)
Ruang Bebas (Free Space)
12
Pengenalan Kepada Sistem Perh
Representative
applications
Optical Fiber Transmission
Propagation
designations
Wavelength
Frequency
13
Frequency
modes
media
Laser beam
1015 Hz
1.7 Frequency Spectrum
Ultraviolet
10-6 m
Wideband data
Visible
Infrared
1014 Hz
Extra High Satellite-satellite 1G0Hz
Frequency Microwave relay
Waveguide
EHF Earth-satellite
1cm
Line-of-sight
Super High Radar 10GHz

radio
Frequency
10cm
SHF Broadband PCS

Ultra Wireless communication1GHz
High Cellular, Pager
Frequenc
1m
UHF TV
VeryyHigh Mobil and Aeronautical
UHF
Coaxial Cable
Frequency
VHF TV and FM 100MHz
VHF
10m
Skywave
High Mobil radio
radio
Frequen
CB radio
100m
cy 10MHz
Amateur radio
HF
Medium
Frequen
AM broadcasting 1MHz
cy
1km
Groundwave
MF
Low
100kHz
radio
Frequen
Aeronautical
100km 10km
cy
Twisted Pair
Submarine cable
LFLow
Very Navigation
Cable
Frequency Transoceanic radio 10kHz
VLF
Audio Telephone
Telegraph
1kHz
1.8 Communication System Efficiency
• We can measure the level of efficiency of communication system
through several ways:
– How close the received signal to the transmitted input signal?
s(t) , r(t) ; Needs high quality of transmission.
s(t) Analog – Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR).
≅
s(t) Digital – Bit Error rate (BER).

– How much power needed to transmit modulated signal?
Low power; Lifespan of a battery is longer.
High power; Lifespan of a battery is shorter.
– How much Bandwidth, BW is needed to transmit the modulated
signal?
Low BW means more users can share the communication
medium.
– How much signal or signal size needs to transmit?
Analog system depends on s(t) BW.
Digital system depends on bit rate, bit/s. 14
1.8.1 Obstacle to Communication System
• Technology Problem
– Hardware
– Economy
– Law and Regulation
• Physical Problems
– BW
– Signal Power
– Noise
15
1.8.2 Types of Transmission
• Simplex
One way transmission
• Half-Duplex
Two way transmission but only one user can transmit the
signal at one time.
• Full-Duplex
Two way transmission, both users can transmit the signal at
the same time.
16
1.9 Noise
• In practice, we cannot avoid the existence of

unwanted signal together with the modulated signal
transmitted by the transmitter.
• This unwanted signal is called noise.
• Noise is a random signal that exists in a
communication system.
• Random signal cannot be represented with a simple
equation.
• The existence of noise will degrade the level of
quality of the receive signal at the receiver.
17
1.9.1 Types of noise
• An undesired disturbance within the frequency band of interest; the summation
of unwanted or disturbing energy introduced into a communications system
from man-made and natural sources.
• A disturbance that affects a signal and that may distort the information carried
by the signal.
Noise
Internal Noise External Noise
Due to random movement of Man-made noise and

electrons in electronic circuit natural resources
• Thermal noise/Johnson noise • Lightning
• Shot noise • Solar noise
• Ignition
• Crosstalk
18
1.9.2 Noise Effect
• Degrade system performance for both analog and
digital systems.
• The receiver cannot understand the original signal.
• The receiver cannot function as it should be.
• Reduce the efficiency of communication system.
19
1.9.3 Thermal Noise
• Johnson–Nyquist noise (thermal noise, Johnson noise, or
Nyquist noise) is the Electronic noise - generated by the
thermal agitation of the charge carriers (the electrons) inside
an electrical conductor in equilibrium, which happens
regardless of any applied voltage.
• Movement of the electrons will forms kinetic energy in the conductor

related to the temperature of the conductor.
• When the temperature increases the movement of free electrons will

increases and the current flows through the conductor.
• Current flows due to the free electrons will creates noise voltage, n(t).
• Noise voltage, n(t) is influenced by the temperature and therefore it is

called thermal noise.
• Also known as Johnson noise or white noise.
20
This type of noise was first measured by John B. Johnson at Bell Labs in 1928. He described his
findings to Harry Nyquist, also at Bell Labs, who was able to explain the results.
In 1928, J. B. Johnson have proven that noise power generated is

proportional to the temperature and the BW.
Pn ∝ TB
Pn = kTB Watt
where
Pn = noise power (Watt)
k = Boltzmann’s constant (1.38 x 10-23 J/K)
T = Temperature (K)
B = BW spectrum system (Hz)
Noise power can be modeled using voltage equivalent circuit (Thevenin

equivalent circuit) or current equivalent circuit (Norton equivalent circuit)
21
It can be modeled by a voltage source representing the noise of the non-ideal
resistor in series with an ideal noise free resistor.
Vn, Noise
voltage source
Rn, Noise
=
source Rn, noise
free
(a) Noise source circuit (b) Thevenin equivalent circuit
• Noise source will be connected to a system with the input resistance RL.
• Therefore, total noise power is Pn.
• With the concept of maximum power transfer ie when Rn = RL all the
power will be transferred to the load.
• Also called as impedance matching.
22
Vn, Noise
voltage source
VL RL, system input
Rn, Noise resistance
free
(c) Thevenin equivalent circuit with the load

Given Rn = RL = R
Note: Vn = Vrms
Voltage across RL :
=> Vn2
RL 2 = kTB
VL = Vn  Vn  4R
Rn + RL VL2  2  Vn2 Vn2 = 4kTBR
=> PL = = =
Vn R R 4R
= Vn = 4kTBR
2 and Pn =PL =kTB
23
1.9.4 How to determine noise level in
communication system?
• Noise effect can be determined by measuring:
- Signal to Noise Ratio, SNR for analog system
- probability of error or bit error rate, BER for digital system
• To determine the quality of received signal at the receiver or an

antenna, SNRi is used.
• SNR o is always less than SNRi , due to the facts that the
existence of noise in the receiver itself. In the receiver usually
constitute a process of filtering, demodulation and
amplification.
• Another parameters that can be used is Noise Factor, F and

Noise Temperature, Te .
24
1.10 Noise Calculation
• SNR is a ratio of signal power, S to noise power, N.
S
SNR = 10 log dB
N
• Noise Figure, F
Si N i
F= dB
So N o
• Noise factor, NF NF = 10 log F

Si N i
= 10 log dB
So N o
25
1.10.1 Noise calculation in Amplifier
• To simplify the analysis two types of noise model are used.
• - Amplifier with noise
• - Amplifier without noise
G Ni
Ni No G No
Na Nai
(a) Model Penguat Berhingar (b) Model Penguat Tanpa Hingar
N o = GN i + N a N o = G ( N i + N ai )
Na and Pn = N i = kTi B
where N ai =
G
26
1.10.2 Analysis Amplifier with Noise
Si G So
(1) S o = GS i
Ni Na No N o = GN i + N a
Model Penguat Berhingar  Na 
=G N i + 
Si  G 
SNRo << SNRi
(2) SNR i Ni = G ( N i + N ai )
=
SNR o GS i
(3) We have:
G ( N i + N ai )
N i = kTi B and N ai = kTe B
N i + N ai
=
Ni kTe B
=> F = 1+
N ai kTi B
=1+
Ni Noise Factor: Noise Temperature:
Te
F =1 +
N ai
F =1+ Te = ( F − 1)Ti
Ni Ti 27
1.10.3 Analysis Amplifier Without Noise
Si
Ni+Nai
G So
No
(1) S o = GSi
N o = G ( N i + N ai )
Model Penguat Tanpa Hingar
Si
SNRo << SNRi
(2) SNR i Ni
=
SNR o GS i
(3) We have:
G ( N i + N ai )
N i = kTi B and N ai = kTe B
N i + N ai
=
Ni kTe B
=> F = 1+
N ai kTi B
=1+
Ni Noise Factor: Noise Temperature:
Te
F =1 +
N ai
F =1+ Te = ( F − 1)Ti
Ni Ti 28
1.10.4 Cascaded Connection
• In communication system cascaded connection is commonly
used:
• Below is the example of cascaded connection.
antenna
F1 , Te1 F3 , Te3
Si S1 S2
Ni N1 N2
G1 F2 , G2 , Te2 G3 So
Ti No
Nai1 Nai2 Nai3
pre-amplifier demodulate amplifier
29
Level 1: Si F1 , Te1 Level 2:
Ni S1 S1 F2 , G2 , Te2 S2
G1
Ti N1 N1 N2
Nai1 Nai2
S1 = G1Si S 2 = G2 S1
N1 = G1 ( N i + N ai1 ) = G1G2 Si
= G1kTi B + G1kTe1 B N 2 = G2 ( N1 + N ai 2 )
= G1kB( Ti + Te1 ) = G1G2 ( N i + N ai1 ) + G2 N ai 2
= G1G2 kTi B + G1G2 kTe1 B + G2 kTe 2 B
Level 3: = G1G2 kB( Ti + Te1 ) + G2 kTe 2 B
F3 , Te3
S2
S 0 = G3 S 2 N2
G3 So
Nai3 No
= G1G2G3 S i
N o = G3 ( N 2 + N ai 3 )
= G2G3 ( N1 + N ai 2 ) + G3 N ai 3
= G1G2G3kTi B + G1G2G3kTe1 B + G2G3kTe 2 B + G3kTe3 B
= G1G2G3kB( Ti + Te1 ) + G2G3 kTe 2 B + G3 kTe 3 B
30
SNR i
Ftot = =
SNR o
Si
Ni
=
So
No
Si
kT i B
=
G1G2G3 S i
G1G2G3 kB (Ti +Te1 ) +G2G3 kT e 2 B +G3 kT e 3 B
G1G2G3 kB (Ti +Te1 ) +G2G3 kT e 2 B +G3 kT e 3 B
=
G1G2G3 kT i B
Ti +Te1 T Te 3
= + e2 +
Ti G1Ti G1G2Ti
Te1 T Te 3
=1 + + e2 +
Ti G1Ti G1G2Ti
We have: Therefore:
F =1 +
Te
Ftot = F1 +
( F2 −1) ( F3 −1)
+
Ti G1 G1G2 31
To calculate Noise Temperature: From: Te = ( F − 1)Ti
We have:
Ftot = F1 +
( F2 −1) + ( F3 −1)
G1 G1G2
 Te 2   T 
1 + −1 1 + e 3 −1
Tetot Te1  Ti   Ti 
1+ =1+ + +
Ti Ti G1 G1G2
Tetot Te1 Te 2 Te 3
= + +
Ti Ti G1Ti G1G2Ti
Te 2 Te 3
Tetot = Te1 + +
G1 G1G2
Friss’ formula: ( F2 − 1) ( F3 − 1) ( Fn − 1)
Ftot =F +
1 + + ... +
G1 G1G2 G1G2 ...Gn −1
Te 2 Te 3 Tn
Tetot = Te1 + + + ... +
G1 G1G2 G1G2 ...Gn −1
32
1.10.5 Attenuator, Transmission Loss
• All transmission medium will attenuate power and caused power loss
=> Pout < Pin.
 Power loss or power attenuation is given by:
Pin 1
L= =
Pout G
P 
LdB = 10 log 10  in  = −GdB
 Pout 
 Also can be calculated using :

LdB = α
where:
λ = length of the transmission medium
α = attenuation constant
33
1.10.6 Transmission Loss
Transmission Medium Frequency Loss dB/km
Kabel Terpiuh (Twisted- 10kHz 2
pair Cable) 100kHz 3
300kHz 6
Kabel Sepaksi (Coaxial 100kHz 1
Cable) 1MHz 2
3MHz 4
Pandu Gelombang
Empat Segi (Rectangular 10GHz 5
Waveguide)
Kabel Fiber Optik (Fiber 3.6 x 1014 Hz 2.5
Optic Cable) 2.4 x 1014 Hz 0.5
1.8 x 1014 Hz 0.2
34
Example 1.1
Calculate signal power if its value in dBm is 0 dBm.
dBm = 10 log P2 / P1 = 10 log P2 / 1 mW = 0
P2 = 1 mW
Example 1.2
Calculate signal power in dB if its value is 1 mW.
dB = 10 log P2 / P1 = 10 log P2 / 1 W = 10 log 1 mW / 1 W = - 30 dB
Example 1.3
A carrier signal, vc(t) = 100 cos 10π t Volt was suppressed by 20 dB.
dB = 20 log V2 / V1 = 20 log 100 / 1 = 40 dB
New carrier amplitude = 40 dB – 20 dB = 20 dB ;
20 log V = 20 dB ; V = log-1 1 = 10 Volt.
Therefore, vc(t)new = 10 cos 10π t Volt 35
Example 1.4
One operational amplifier with a frequency range of (18-20) MHz has
input resistance 10 kΩ . Calculate noise voltage at the input if the
amplifier operate at ambient temperature of 270C.
Vn2 = 4KTBR
= 4 x 1.38 x 10-23 x (273+ 27) x 2 x 106 x 104
Vn = 18 µ volt
36
Example 1.5
Noise generated in amplifier of 5 MHz bandwidth is represented by
amplifier input noise power of 0.082 pW. Calculate noise factor and
noise figure if the amplifier was fed with the
(a) source input signal match the temperature of 300 K
(b) source input signal match the temperature of 100 K
Ni No
(a) Noise power from the source input = KTiB

Ne = 0.082PW
= 1.38 x 10-23 x 300 x 5 x 106
= 0.021 pW
Ni + Ne 0.021 + 0.082 0.103

Faktor hingar = = = = 4.9
Ni 0.021 0.021
Noise figure = 10log10 4.9 = 6.9 dB

37
Ni No
(b) Noise power from the source input = KTiB
= 1.38 x 10-23 x 100 x 5 x 106
= 0.007 pW Ne = 0.082PW
Ni + Ne 0.007 + 0.082 0.103

Faktor hingar = = = = 12.7
Ni 0.007 0.007
Noise Factor = 10log10 12.7 = 11.04 dB
Noise factor and noise figure were less when operated at room
temperature.
38
Example 1.6
An antenna is connected to an amplifier with noise temperature, Te = 125 oK,
gain, G = 108. Given the bandwidth, B = 10 MHz and output receiver noise, No
= 10 µ W. Determine the antenna temperature, Ti and noise factor, F of the
receiver.
N o = ( N i + N e )G
= ( KT i B + KT e B )G
= KB (Ti + Te )G
10 µ = 1.38 ×10 −23 ×10 ×10 6 (Ti +125 )10 8
∴ Ti = 600 o
K
Te 125 N i + N e 100
F = 1+ = 1+ = 1. 2 or F= = = 1.2
Ti 600 Ni 82.8
39
Example 1.7
Three amplifiers, ABC was connected in series. Noise figure and power
gain of the amplifiers are given below:
Amplifier A : GA = 20 dB FA = 3 dB
Amplifier B : GB = 10 dB FB = 5 dB
Amplifier C : GC = 5 dB FC = 10 dB
An input signal of 50 dB higher than noise level was fed at the input of the
network. Calculate:
(a) Total noise factor
(b) SNR at the output
40
Solution:
F − 1 F3 − 1 Amplifier A : GA = 20 dB FA = 3 dB
F = F1 + 2 +
G1 G1G2 Amplifier B : GB = 10 dB FB = 5 dB
10 5 / 10
−1
10 − 1 Amplifier C : GC = 5 dB FC = 10 dB
= 10 +
3 10
+
100 100 × 10
3.16 − 1 10 − 1
= 1.99 + + A B C
100 1000
= 1.99 + 0.0216 + 9 × 10 −3
= 2.03
(a) Angka hingar = 10 log10 2.03 = 3.05 dB
(b) Di beri, SNRmasukan = 50 dB

SNR di masukan
F=
SNR di keluarkan
FdB = SNR masukan (dB) – SNR keluaran (dB)
SNR keluaran = 50 dB – 3.05 dB = 46.95 dB 41

Summary
Protocol Release Date Op. Frequency Throughput Data Rate Modulation Range (Radius Range (Radius
(Typ) (Max) Technique Indoor) Outdoor) Loss
Depends, # includes one
and type of wall
walls
Legacy 1997 2.4 GHz 0.9 Mbit/s 2 Mbit/s ~20 Meters ~100 Meters
802.11a 1999 5 GHz 23 Mbit/s 54 Mbit/s OFDM ~35 Meters ~120 Meters
802.11b 1999 2.4 GHz 4.3 Mbit/s 11 Mbit/s DSSS ~38 Meters ~140 Meters
802.11g 2003 2.4 GHz 19 Mbit/s 54 Mbit/s OFDM ~38 Meters ~140 Meters
802.11n June 2009[4] 2.4 GHz 74 Mbit/s 248 Mbit/s ~70 Meters ~250 Meters
(est.) 5 GHz
802.11y June 2008[4] 3.7 GHz 23 Mbit/s 54 Mbit/s ~50 Meters ~5000 Meters
(est.)
42

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SZE 3533

“If the information that you want to send is your

“What is the source and technology available

mtx (t) mrx (t)

Fig. 1.1 Basic communication system

• Analog System: Information signal is analog signal and

An example of a periodic signal is a sinusoidal signal:

But cos(2 π ) =1 and sin(2 π )=0

Analog, discrete-time Digital, discrete-time

s(t) – Input signal; audio, video, image, data etc.

• Transmitter – involve modulation process – convert modulating signal,

• Transmission medium – connecting the transmitter and the receiver

• Output Transducer – convert the modulating signal, mrx(t) to its original

Kabel Gentian Optik (Fiber Optic)

Ruang Bebas (Free Space)

Super High Radar 10GHz

SHF Broadband PCS

s(t) Digital – Bit Error rate (BER).

• In practice, we cannot avoid the existence of

Internal Noise External Noise

Due to random movement of Man-made noise and

• Movement of the electrons will forms kinetic energy in the conductor

• When the temperature increases the movement of free electrons will

• Noise voltage, n(t) is influenced by the temperature and therefore it is

• Also known as Johnson noise or white noise.

In 1928, J. B. Johnson have proven that noise power generated is

Noise power can be modeled using voltage equivalent circuit (Thevenin

(a) Noise source circuit (b) Thevenin equivalent circuit

(c) Thevenin equivalent circuit with the load

• To determine the quality of received signal at the receiver or an

• Another parameters that can be used is Noise Factor, F and

• Noise factor, NF NF = 10 log F

(a) Model Penguat Berhingar (b) Model Penguat Tanpa Hingar

pre-amplifier demodulate amplifier

 Also can be calculated using :

Calculate signal power in dB if its value is 1 mW.

dB = 10 log P2 / P1 = 10 log P2 / 1 W = 10 log 1 mW / 1 W = - 30 dB

(a) Noise power from the source input = KTiB

Ni + Ne 0.021 + 0.082 0.103

Noise figure = 10log10 4.9 = 6.9 dB

Ni + Ne 0.007 + 0.082 0.103

Noise Factor = 10log10 12.7 = 11.04 dB

(b) Di beri, SNRmasukan = 50 dB

SNR keluaran = 50 dB – 3.05 dB = 46.95 dB 41

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