Chapter 11

Dynamic Behavior of
Closed-Loop Control
Systems

Chapter 11

Chapter 11

Next, we develop a transfer function for each of the five elements

in the feedback control loop. For the sake of simplicity, flow rate
w1 is assumed to be constant, and the system is initially operating
at the nominal steady rate.

Process
In section 4.1 the approximate dynamic model of a stirred-tank
blending system was developed:
K
K
X s 1 X1 s 2 W2 s
s 1
s 1

(11-1)

1 x
K2
w

(11-2)

where
V
,
w

w1
K1 , and
w

Chapter 11

Chapter 11

t denotes the internal set-point composition

The symbol xsp
t is
expressed as an equivalent electrical current signal. xsp
t by the
related to the actual composition set point xsp
composition sensor-transmitter gain Km:

t Km xsp
t
xsp

(11-7)

Current-to-Pressure (I/P) Transducer

Chapter 11

The transducer transfer function merely consists of a steady-state

gain KIP:
Pt s
K IP
P s

(11-9)

Control Valve
As discussed in Section 9.2, control valves are usually designed so
that the flow rate through the valve is a nearly linear function of
the signal to the valve actuator. Therefore, a first-order transfer
function is an adequate model
W2 s
Kv

Pt s v s 1

(11-10)

Composition Sensor-Transmitter (Analyzer)

Chapter 11

We assume that the dynamic behavior of the composition sensortransmitter can be approximated by a first-order transfer function,
but m is small so it can be neglected.

Controller

X m s
Km
X s

Suppose that an electronic proportional plus integral controller is

used.
P s

1
K c 1

E s

s
I

(11-4)

where P s and E(s) are the Laplace transforms of the controller

output p t and the error signal e(t). Kc is dimensionless.

Chapter 11

1. Summer

Chapter 11

2. Comparator

3. Block

Y(s) G(s)X(s)
Blocks in Series

are equivalent to...

Chapter 11

Closed-Loop Transfer Functions

Indicate dynamic behavior of the controlled process
(i.e., process plus controller, transmitter, valve etc.)

Chapter 11

Set-point Changes (Servo Problem)

Assume Ysp 0 and D = 0 (set-point change while disturbance
change is zero)

K mGcGvG p
Y ( s)

Ysp( s) 1 GcGvG pGm

(11-26)

Disturbance Changes (Regulator Problem)

Assume D 0 and Ysp = 0 (constant set-point)

Gd
Y (s)

D ( s ) 1 Gc Gv G p Gm
*Note same denominator for Y/D, Y/Ysp.

(11-29)

Chapter 11

Chapter 11

Chapter 11

Figure 11.16 Block diagram for level control system.

Chapter 11

Chapter 11

Chapter 11

Chapter 11

EXAMPLE 1:

P.I. control of liquid level

Block Diagram:

Assumptions

1. q1, varies with time; q2 is constant.

2. Constant density and x-sectional area of tank, A.

Chapter 11

3. q 3 f (h )

(for uncontrolled process)

4. The transmitter and control valve have negligible dynamics

(compared with dynamics of tank).
5. Ideal PI controller is used (direct-acting).
For these assumptions, the transfer functions are:

G C (s) K C 1
G M (s) K M
Is
G V (s) K V

1
As
1
G L (s)
As
G P (s)

KC 0

The closed-loop transfer function is:

Gd
Y H

D Q1 1 GC GV GP GM

(11-68)

Chapter 11

Substitute,

Simplify,

1
Y
As

1 1
KV
1 K C 1
K M
I s As

Y
Is

D A I s 2 K C KV K M I s K C K P K M

(2)

(3)

Characteristic Equation:

A I s 2 K C KV K M I s K C K P K M 0

(4)

Recall the standard 2nd Order Transfer Function:

G (s)

K
2s 2 2 s 1

(5)

To place Eqn. (4) in the same form as the denominator of the

T.F. in Eqn. (5), divide by Kc, KV, KM :

A I
s 2 Is 1 0
K CK VK M

Chapter 11

Comparing coefficients (5) and (6) gives:

A I
KCK VK M

2 I

I
2

A I
KCK VK M

0 1

Substitute,

1 K C K V K M I

2
A
For 0 < < 1 , closed-loop response is oscillatory. Thus
decreased degree of oscillation by increasing Kc or I (for constant
Kv, KM, and A).
unusual property of PI control of integrating system
better to use P only

Chapter 11

Stability of Closed-Loop
Control Systems

Chapter 11

Proportional Control of First-Order Process

Set-point change:
K C KV K P K M
Y
s 1

Ysp 1 K C KV K P K M
s 1
Y
K1

Ysp 1s 1

K1

K OL
1 K OL

GP

KP
s 1

GV , GC , GM constantgains
(KV , KC , K m )

1 K OL

K OL K C KV K P K M

Set-point change = M

Chapter 11

y(t ) K1M 1 et 1

M
Offset = ysp y
1 K OL

See Section 11.3 for tank example

Chapter 11

Closed-Loop Transfer function approach:

KK C
Y

Ysp s 1 KK C

First-order behavior
closed-loop time constant

KK C
1 KK C

1 KK C

(faster, depends on Kc)

s 1

1 KK C

Chapter 11

Chapter 11

General Stability Criterion

Most industrial processes are stable without feedback control.
Thus, they are said to be open-loop stable or self-regulating. An
open-loop stable process will return to the original steady state
after a transient disturbance (one that is not sustained) occurs. By
contrast there are a few processes, such as exothermic chemical
reactors, that can be open-loop unstable.
Definition of Stability. An unconstrained linear system is said to
be stable if the output response is bounded for all bounded
inputs. Otherwise it is said to be unstable.

Chapter 11

Effect of PID Control on a Disturbance Change

For a regulator (disturbance change), we want the
disturbance effects to attenuate when control is applied.
Consider the closed-loop transfer function for proportional
control of a third-order system (disturbance change).
8
D(s) is unspecified
Y ( s) 3
D( s)
2
s 6 s 12 s 8 8 K C
8
GV 1
GM 1
GP Gd
3
s 2
Kc is the controller function, i.e., G C (s) K C .

Let ( s ) s 3 6s 2 12 s 8 8K C

Chapter 11

If Kc = 1,

( s ) s 4 s 2 2s 4 s 4 s 1 3 j s 1 3 j

e at

sa

Since all of the factors are positive,

the step response will be the sum of negative
exponentials, but will exhibit oscillation.

If Kc = 8,
( s) s 3 6s 2 12s 72 ( s 6)( s 2 12)

Corresponds to sine wave (undamped), so this case is

marginally stable.

If Kc = 27

( s) s 3 6s 2 12 s 224 s 8 s 2 2s 28

Chapter 11

s 8 s 1 3 3 j s 1 3 3 j

Since the sign of the real part of the root is negative, we

obtain a positive exponential for the response. Inverse
transformation shows how the controller gain affects the
roots of the system.
Offset with proportional control (disturbance stepresponse; D(s) =1/s )
Y ( s)

8
1

s 3 6s 2 12s 8 8K C s

y (t ) lim sY ( s )
s 0

8
1

8 8K C 1 K C

Chapter 11

Therefore, if Kc is made very large, y(t) approaches 0,

but does not equal zero. There is some offset with
proportional control, and it can be rather large when
large values of Kc create instability.
Integral Control:
K
P C
I

et dt

P(s)

KC
E(s)
Is

G C (s)

KC
Is

For a unit step load-change and Kc=1,

Y(s)

8s

ss 2 8
3

1
s

lim sY(s) 0 y()

s 0

no offset

(note 4th order polynomial)

Chapter 11

PI Control:

G C (s) K C 1
Is
8s
Y(s)
8K
s(s 2)3 C

1
8K Cs s

lim sY(s) 0
s 0

no offset

adjust Kc and I to obtain satisfactory response (roots of

equation which is 4th order).

PID Control: (pure PID)

1
G C (s) K C 1
Ds
Is

No offset, adjust Kc, I , D to obtain satisfactory result

(requires solving for roots of 4th order characteristic
equation).

Analysis of roots of characteristic equation is one way to

analyze controller behavior

1 G CG V G P G M 0

Rule of Thumb:
Closed-loop response becomes less oscillatory and more stable by
decreasing Kc or increasing I .

Chapter 11

General Stability Criterion

Consider the characteristic equation,

1 G CG V G P G M 0
Note that the left-hand side is merely the denominator of the
closed-loop transfer function.
The roots (poles) of the characteristic equation (s - pi) determine
the type of response that occurs:
Complex roots oscillatory response
All real roots no oscillations
***All roots in left half of complex plane = stable system

Chapter 11

Figure 11.25 Stability regions in the complex plane for roots of the
characteristic equation.

Chapter 11

Stability Considerations
Feedback control can result in oscillatory or even
unstable closed-loop responses.
Typical behavior (for different values of controller
gain, Kc).

Chapter 11

Roots of 1 + GcGvGpGm
(Each test is for different
value of Kc)
(Note complex roots
always occur in pairs)

Figure 11.26 Contributions of characteristic equation roots to closed-loop response.

Chapter 11

GOL ( s )

2KC
( s 1)( s 2)( s 3)

Routh Stability Criterion

Chapter 11

Characteristic equation
an s n an 1s n 1 a1s a0 0

(11-93)

Where an 0 . According to the Routh criterion, if any of

the coefficients a0, a1, , an-1 are negative or zero, then
at least one root of the characteristic equation lies in the
RHP, and thus the system is unstable. On the other
hand, if all of the coefficients are positive, then one
must construct the Routh Array shown below:

Chapter 11
For stability, all elements in the first column must be
positive.

Chapter 11

The first two rows of the Routh Array are comprised of the
coefficients in the characteristic equation. The elements in the
remaining rows are calculated from coefficients by using the
formulas:

a n-1a n-2 a n a n-3

b1
a n-1

a n 1a n 4 a n a n 5
b2
a n 1

(11-94)
(11-95)

.
.

b1a n 3 a n 1b 2
b1
b1a n 5 a n 1b 3
c2
b1
c1

(11-96)
(11-97)

(n+1 rows must be constructed; n = order of the characteristic eqn.)

Application of the Routh Array:

GP GL

8
(s 2)3

Characteristic Eqn is

Chapter 11

GV GM 1

GC KC

1 GC GV GPGM 0

8K C
0
3
(s 2)

(s 2)3 8K C 0

s 3 6s 2 12s 8 8K C 0
We want to know what value of Kc causes instability, I.e., at least
one root of the above equation is positive. Using the Routh array,

1
12
6
8 8K C
6(12) 18 8K C
0
6
8 8K C
0

n 3

Conditions for Stability

72 8 8K C 0

KC 8

8 8K C 0
K C 1
The important constraint is Kc<8. Any Kc 8 will cause instability.

Chapter 11

Figure 11.29
Flowchart for
performing a
stability analysis.

Chapter 11

Additional Stability Criteria

1.

Bode Stability Criterion

Ch. 14 - can handle time delays

2.

Nyquist Stability Criterion

Ch. 14

Direct Substitution Method

Imaginary axis is the dividing line between stable and unstable systems.

Chapter 11

1. Substitute s = jw into characteristic equation

2. Solve for Kcm and wc
(a) one equation for real part
(b) one equation for imaginary part
Example (cf. Example 11.11)
characteristic equation: 1 + 5s + 2Kce-s = 0
set s = jw

(11-101)

1 + 5jw + 2Kce-jw = 0
1 + 5jw + 2Kc (cos(w j sin(w) = 0

Chapter 11

Direct Substitution Method (continued)

Re:

1 + 2Kc cos w = 0

(1)

Im:

5w 2Kc sin w = 0

(2)

solve for Kc in (1) and substitute into (2):

5w

sin w
5w tan w 0
cos w

Solve for w:
from (1)

wc = 1.69 rad/min (96.87/min)

Kcm = 4.25

(vs. 5.5 using Pade approximation in Example 11.11)

Chapter 11
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