Introduction

A transistor is a device that can be used as either an amplifier or a switch.

Transistor is current controlling device.

Transistors can be
either
npn or pnp type.

 The three layers of BJT are called Emitter, Base and Collector
Base is very thin compared to the other two layers
Base is lightly doped. Emitter is heavily doped. Collector is
moderately doped
NPN Emitter and Collector are made of N-type semiconductors;
Base is P-type
PNP Emitter and Collector are P-type, Base is N-type
Both types (NPN and PNP) are extensively used, either separately
or in the same circuit
BJT has two junctions Emitter-Base (EB) Junction
and Collector-Base (CB) Junction
The device is called bipolar junction transistor because
current is due to motion of two types of charge carriers free
electrons & holes
Transistor Analogous to two diodes connected back-to-back: EB
diode and CB diode

Transistor Structure

In diodes there is one p-n junction.

In Bipolar junction transistors (BJT), there are three layers and two p-n
junctions.

Note: Arrow Direction from P to N ( Like

Diode)

Figure showing different transistor packages

Transistor Operation

Operation of NPN transistor is discussed here

For normal operation (amplifier application)

EB junction should be forward biased

CB junction should be reverse biased

Depletion width at EB junction is narrow (forward biased)

Depletion width at CB junction is wide (reverse biased)

Transistor- Normal Operation

When EB junction is forward biased, free electrons from emitter region drift
towards base region

Some free electrons combine with holes in the base to form small base current

Inside the base region (p-type), free electrons are minority carriers. So most of
the free electrons are swept away into the collector region due to reverse
biased CB junction

Three currents can be identified in BJT

1. Emitter current;

2. Base current;
3. Collector current

Current directions in NPN and PNP transistors:

For both varieties:

------------(1)

collector current has two components:

------------(2)

dc is the fraction of charge carriers emitted from emitter, that enter

into the collector region
ICBO is the reverse saturation current in CB diode
--------------(3)

As approximation, we can neglect ICBO in eq( 2) & (3)

compared to IE and IC
Hence approximate equations are:
The parameter
Value of

dc is called common-base dc current gain

dc is around 0.99

We know
Substituting

In above eq, we
get

------------ (4)

where

&

Transistor Configurations

BJT has three terminals

For two-port applications, one of the BJT terminals needs to be made common
between input and output

Accordingly three configurations exist:

Common Base (CB) configuration
Common Emitter (CE) configuration
Common Collector (CC) configuration

Common Base ( CB ) configuration

(Resistors are not shown here

for simplicity)

Base is common between input and output

Input voltage: VEB
Output voltage: VCB

Input current: IE
Output current: IC

CB Input characteristics
A plot of IE versus VEB for
various values of VCB
It is similar to forward
biased diode characteristics
As VCB is increased, IE
increases only slightly
Note that second letter in
the suffix is B (for base)

Input resistance ri

Voltage amplification factor AV

Note: Both can be determined from the CB input characteristics

CB Output characteristics

CB Output characteristics
A plot of IC versus VCB for
various values of IE
Three regions are
identified:
Active,
Cutoff,
Saturation

Active region:
E-B junction forward biased
C-B junction reverse biased

IC is positive, VCB is positive

IC increases with IE

Cut off Region:

When IE = 0, IC = ICBO

ICBO

is collector to base current with emitter open

Below this line we have cut-off region

Here both junctions are reverse biased

Saturation Region:

Region to the left of y-axis (VCB negative)

Here both junctions are forward biased

IC decreases exponentially, and eventually changes

direction

 Output

resistance ro

Current amplification factor AI or ac

Note: Both can be measured from output

characteristics

Common Emitter configuration

(Resistors are omitted for simplicity)

Emitter is common between input and

output
Input voltage: VBE ;
Input current: IB
Output voltage: VCE;
Output current: IC

CE input characteristics

Plot of IB versus VBE for various

values of VCE

Similar to diode characteristics

As VCE is increased, IB decreases
only slightly
Note that second suffix is E (for
emitter)

CE output characteristics
A plot of IC versus VCE
for various values of IB
Three regions
identified:
Active,
Cut-off,
Saturation

 Active region:

Linear region in the output characteristics

E-B junction forward biased

C-B junction reverse biased

IC increases with IB

Cut off region:

Region below IB=0 line (or IC=ICEO)
Saturation Region:

Region to the left of the vertical line VCE=VCE(sat)=0.3V ( for Silicon)

Input resistance ri

Output resistance ro

Voltage gain AV

Current gain AI or ac

Note: All these parameters can be determined from CE characteristics

Experimental setup for determining CE

characteristics

Transistor Biasing

Applying external dc voltages to ensure that transistor operates in the

desired region

Which is the desired region?

For amplifier application, transistor should operate
in active region
For switch application, it should operate in cut-off
and sat.

Quiescent point (Q-point)

The point we get by plotting the dc values of IC , IB and VCE (when ac input is
zero) on the transistor characteristics

Q-point is in the
middle of active
region.

Types of biasing:

Fixed bias

Self bias

1. Fixed bias:
Equations to consider are:

Pros:

1) Simple circuit
2) Uses very few resistors

Cons:

1.

Q-point is unstable

If temperature increases, then increases, and

hence ICQ and VCEQ vary (effectively Q-point shifts)

If the transistor is replaced with another transistor having different

value, then also Q-point shifts

Voltage divider bias or Self bias

Resistor RE connected between
emitter and ground
Voltage-divider resistors R1 & R2
replace RB
Circuit can be analyzed in two
methods:
Exact method (using Thevenins
theorem)
Approximation method
(neglecting base current)

FET (Field effect transistor)

Two main groups

JFET (junction FET)

MOSFET (metal-oxide-semiconductor FET)

Advantage

extremely large input impedance

Disadvantages

Smaller gain (gm) than bipolar transistor

More difficult to analyze

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JFET

Drain

n-channel JFET

just a slab of n-type semiconductor !!

I
FET
Gate
=
Source
=
Drain =

Bipolar
base
emitter
collector

Gate

Source

like transistor, the drain current is controlled by VGS

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JFET

n-channel JFET

PN junction

reversed biased

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JFET operation

VGS=0
Max conducting channel, max
drain current ID
VT <VGS < 0
pn junction is reverse biased
reduce the conducting channel
reduce the drain current
VGS < VT (Pinch-off voltage)
Further reduce VGS until the
depletion layer grows so wide
that the channel is completely
blocked
ID=0

VG=0
VS=0

ID

VD

P
N

VT <VG<0
VD

VS=0

VG< VT
VD

VS=0

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JFET as a voltage-controlled resistor

If VDS is small

VGS controls the channel width, and therefore the resistance

JFET is a voltage-controlled resistor

VG
VS

VD

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JFET as a voltage-controlled current

source

If VDS is large

the drain end is more reversed biased !

The channel is warped
Increase VDS => increase depletion => reduce ID
But increase VDS => increase ID

VG= -2V

VS=0

VD = 5V
N-channel

Net result

ID remains constant even VDS is increased

A voltage-controlled current source

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Saturation region

Small VDS - linear region (voltage controlled resistor)

Large VDS saturation region (constant ID, voltage controlled current source)

Linear region
Small VDS
JFET is like
a resistor

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ID vs VGS (saturation region)

IDSS

VP

IDSS

maximum current at VGS=0 (widest channel width, smallest resistance)

different FET has different IDSS

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ID vs VGS

The slope of ID vs VGS (gm) is less steep (not an exponential)

smaller gm, not as good as bipolar transistor

FET is difficult to analyze

Bipolar is easier to analyze because VBE ~ 0.6V

VGS can vary over a wide range, usually analyze by graphical method (load-line)

The most important advantage

Input is connected to an reversed biased pn junction

Extremely high input impedance (IG~0)

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FET versus bipolar

FET is similar to bipolar transistor

Voltage-controlled current source

bipolar circuits can be used by FET

39

An adjustable current source

Add a resistor RS so as to adjust ID

Find by load-line (graphical) method

VSG= IDRS
VGS= -IDRS

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gm of FET

Curve approx by a parabola

I D (VGS VT ) 2

VT

41

Transconductance gm

I D = k (VGS VT ) 2

dI D

= 2k (VGS VT ) = g m
dVGS

42

Typical value of gm at ID=1mA

JFET

~ 2m A/V

(from data book)

bipolar ~ 40m A/V (by calculation gm=IC /25mV)

Gain of bipolar is much higher than FET !

Why use FET?

extremely high input impedance

almost zero input current

good for picking up signal from source that has high source impedance

e.g. microphones, input stage of oscilloscope

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Both MOSFETs are conducting

44

MOSFET (Metal Oxide Semiconductor

FET)

Any current in the circuit below?

No current

one end must be reversed biased

45

MOSFET

Basic principle - capacitive effect

metal
+++++++++++++
-------------

charge

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Enhancement MOSFET

Add a metal gate

Capacitive effect builds up a ve charge channel that allows electrons to flow

metal
insulator
gate
n

-- -- -- -- -- --

source

n
drain

body

-ve charge,
conducting channel

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NMOS (n-channel MOS)

when gate voltage is zero, no drain current

drain current increases as gate voltage increased

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Enhancement MOSFET
3V

if VDS is small

VGS controls channel width

IDS

behaves as a variable resistor

VDS

5V

-- -- -- -0V

warped

Large VDS

VDS increase, drain becomes more positive

conducting channel becomes less -ve charged to the point that it will almost be vanished

Channel is warped

Saturation

increase in VDS also increase drain current but offset by the reduction in channel

Constant ID over a range of VDS

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MOSFET symbol

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With PMOS (p-channel MOS)

Works in opposite polarity

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Flash memory

Non-volatile memory for NMOS and CMOS

Add a floating gate

A layer of oxide sandwiched between insulators

Control gate

floating gate
(layer of oxide)

insulator

-- -- -- -- -- --

source

n
drain

body

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Operation

To store logic 1

The oxide layer contains no charge

positive voltage at the control gate will turn ON the MOSFET

To store logic 0

Apply a high voltage (20V) across the floating gate

Breakdown the insulator, electrons trapped in the oxide layer

The electrons stored act as a screen, positive voltage at the control gate cannot
turn ON the MOSFET (MOSFET is OFF)

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THANK
YOU