Linear Distance Measurement

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DISTANCE MEASUREMENT
Mohd Effendi Daud (Dr. Sc)
B.Surv (UTM, Malaysia) Msc (UTM, Malaysia), Dr.Sc, (Nagoya Univ., Japan)
(Geomatic Division)
Faculty of Civil & Environmental Engineering,
Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia, 86400 Batu Pahat, Johor, MALAYSIA.
Phone : +6074537363; +60197853740; Fax : +6074537060
E-mail : effendi@uthm.edu.my
Web: http://www.fkass.uthm.edu.my/
1
With Wisdom, We Explore
Introduction
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One of the fundamentals of geomatic

measurements (surveying) is the need to
measure distance.
Distance are not necessarily linear, especially if
they occur on the spherical earth.
In this course we deal with linear distances,
which we can consider a straight line from one
point or features to another.
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Introduction
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Many varied methods have been developed to

measure distances.
It depends on the desired quality and accuracies
of the result.
A brief summary of relevant techniques and
their respective accuracies is explained.
Linear Measurement
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Linear measurement is the basis of all surveying.

Involving measuring the distance between two
or more fixed points.
Direct linear measurements can be obtained or
estimated through a number of methods, but
the most common method in linear
measurements are:
Pacing,
Measuring wheel,
Taping, and
Electronic distance measurement (EDM) devices
Pacing
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The ability to pace distance is very useful

A person can determine their pace by
counting the number of paces necessary
to walk a distance that has been
previously measured.
A pace is defined as one step
A stride is consider two steps
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Measuring Wheels
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Taping
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Taping applies to measurement using a steel

band, fiber glass tape, metal tape, or linen tape.
It is fairly quick, easy and cheap, and hence is
the common form of distance measurement.
Taping is prone to errors and mistakes and
these will discussed later, but this the
fundamental technique used for distance
measurement in planar geomatic science.
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Taping
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Taping equipment
Measuring Tape
Standard is 30 m length. Normally made of
fiberglass.
Taping
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Conditions for Taping

The following conditions must be taken into
consideration;
Taping must always be straight and must not be
twisted
Use chaining arrows for intermediate points
Taping must be horizontal if possible
Make the taping on the ground if possible
Slope measurement needs to be reduced.
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Taping
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Taping Procedure
It must be remembered in geomatic that all
distances are presumed to be horizontal
distances and not surface distances.
Every field measurement taken be either
measured horizontally or, if not, reduced to
a horizontal distance mathematically.
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Taping
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Tape Corrections
Are applied to account for systematic errors
incorporated into the measured lengths due
to incorrect tape graduation, temperature
variation, sag, and/or slope.
Tape corrections are typically relatively small
about <1% of the measured distance, but still
significant for the corrections to be applied.
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Taping
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The corrections are categorized as follow:

Standardization
The tape has a nominal length under certain conditions.
After certain period the tape stretches. Therefore,
standardization needs to be carried out frequently with
the usage of a reference tape or baseline.
Standardization Correction = L(l l)/l
where,
L = recorded length of line
l = nominal length of field tape (30 m)
l = standardized length of field tape (30.011 )
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Taping
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Slope Correction
Slope correction is usually made by observing the angle
() of the slope between the measuring head.
Slope Correction = L Cos or L(1-Cos)
This correction is always ve as the slope distance is
always longer than the horizontal distance
required.
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Taping
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Temperature Correction
The phenomenon of thermal expansion plays an
important role in many engineering applications. Steel
tapes are calibrated at a standard temperature of 20C.
We need to establish a correction that can account for
the change in length of a steel tape due to the influence
of temperature.
Therefore, temperature should be corrected for improved
precision.
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Taping
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Temperature Correction = L(tf ts)
where,
= the coefficient of expansion of the tape
tf = mean field temperature (C)
ts = temperature of standardization (20C)
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DISTANCE MEASUREMENT
(Geomatic Division)
Phone : +6074537363; +60197853740; Fax : +6074537060
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Electronic Distance
Measurement (EDM)
EDMs are very useful in measuring

distances that are difficult to access or
long distances
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Electronic Distance
Measurement (EDM)
EDMs measure the time required for a

light wave to sent to a target and
reflected back.
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Total Station
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A Total station is an electronic/optical instrument

used in modern surveying.
The total station is an electronic theodolite
integrated with an electronic distance meter
(EDM) to read distances from the instrument to
a particular point.
Measurement of distance is accomplished with a
modulated microwave or infrared carrier signal
and reflected by a prism reflector.
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Total Station
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Total station & prism
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Summary
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Summary of linear distance measurement techniques
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SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
(Geomatic Division)
Phone : +6074537363; +60197853740; Fax : +6074537060
22
Significant Figures
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The significant figures of a measurement

are those digit that are known, plus one
estimated digit following the known digits.
Measurements can be precise only the
degree that the measuring instrument is
precise.
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Significant Figures
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Example:
What if I tell you go down Batu PahatKluang Road 1.5 km and turn left, what
should you do? What if I said instead, go
down Batu Pahat-Kluang Road 1.53 km
and turn left
How is that different?
24
Significant Figures
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Mathematic Operations
When the answers to a calculation contain
too many significant figures, it must be
rounded off.
One way of rounding off involves
Underestimating: the answer for five of
digits (0, 1, 2, 3, and 4).
Overestimating: the answer for the other
five (5, 6, 7, 8, and 9)
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Significant Figures
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Mathematic Operations contd

The approach to rounding off is
summarized as follows:
If the digits is smaller than 5, drop this and
leave the remaining number unchanged.
Thus, 1.684 becomes 1.68
If the digits is 5 or larger, drop this digit and

add 1 to the preceding digit.
Thus, 1.247 becomes 1.25
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ERRORS IN DISTANCE
MEASUREMENT
(Geomatic Division)
Phone : +6074537363; +60197853740; Fax : +6074537060
27
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Errors in Distance
Measurement
The main task in geomatic measurements is to

accurately measure the earth.
It is a well recognized fact that all
measurements, except counting, contained
errors.
There are natural in any measurement because
of residual errors, in the manufacture of the
instruments, human observations, and
environmental conditions.
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Errors in Distance
Measurement
A well designed survey will eliminate

blunders and mistakes, account for any
systematic errors within the measurement
process, and
Minimise the effects of random errors that will
still exist after blunders and systematic errors
have been either eliminated or corrected.
The types of errors in linear measurement and
their sources of error are described as follow:
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Errors in Distance
Measurement
Systematic nor Cumulative Errors

These errors exist in nay survey measurement
and each additional measurement increase
the effect of the error.
Such errors which may be either +ve or ve,
can have any appreciable effect, but this can
be reduced as required by taking suitable field
precautions or correcting the observed
measurements.
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Errors in Distance
Measurement

The example of systematic errors are as
follow:
Wrong length of tape (+ve or ve),
Slope (+ve or ve),
Sag (+ve or ve), and
Temperature (+ve or ve).
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Errors in Distance
Measurement

Systematic errors can be eliminated by
procedures such as
Balancing foresight and backsight in a level loop,
By applying a correction such as a temperature
correction to a taped measurement,
By applying a calibration for EDM or Total Station,
and
Taking suitable field precautions.
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Errors in Distance
Measurement
Compensating or Accidental Errors

Although every precaution may be taken,
certain unavoidable errors always exist in any
measurement.
Sometimes +ve or ve, they tend to cancel
each other out in the long run.
Some examples of accidental errors are
holding and marking, instrument pointing,
and variation in tension.
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Errors in Distance
Measurement
Compensating or Accidental Errors

Because of the equal probability of algebraic
sign, random errors tend to be compensating.
Procedures and corrections cant compensate
for random error.
Random error must be distributed throughout
the survey based on most probable values by
adjustment procedures.
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Errors in Distance
Measurement
Gross / Blunders Errors

These errors arise from mistakes,
carelessness or lack of experience.
They are quite random and allowance cannot
be made fro them.
Examples of gross errors are:
Miscounting tape lengths,
Misreading the tape, and
Wrong booking.
35
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Errors in Distance
Measurement
Gross / Blunders Errors

Usually be detected by
Computing survey closures,
Carefully checking recorded, and
Computed values and checking observations.
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ACCURACY & PRECISION

(Geomatic Division)
Phone : +6074537363; +60197853740; Fax : +6074537060
37
Accuracy & Precision

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The term accuracy and precision are often

confused, even though their meaning are
quite different.
Is a measurement accurate? Is it precise?
38

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Accuracy
Accuracy is the degree of closeness to the truth.
If one measurement is taken and happens to agree
with a known true value, then it is an accurate
measurement.
Precision
Precision is the degree of repeatability in repeated
measurements.
If repeated measurements agree with other, then
they are precise.
39

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Suppose that you measure the same line five

times.
The first party reports the following measurements:
736.80, 736.75, 736.70, 736.85, & 736.65 -----> more
accurate
The second party reports the following measurements:
736.42, 736.40, 736.40, 736.42, & 736.41 -----> more
precise
The true length of the line is 736.72 m
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Example:
If you are playing soccer and you always hit
the left goal post instead of scoring, then you
are NOT accurate, but you ARE precise.
Better precision does not necessarily mean
better accuracy.
The objective of geomatics measurement
is to make measurements that are both
precise and accurate.
41

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Example;
Low Accuracy High Accuracy High Accuracy

High Precision Low Precision High Precision
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Bias (dont let precision fool you!)

If you measure something several times and all
values are close, they may still all be wrong if
there is a BIAS.
BIAS is a systematic (built in) error which makes
all measurements wrong by a certain amount.
Example of Bias: You always measure your
height wearing shoes with thick soles.
43

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Degree of Accuracy
Accuracy depends on the instrument you
are measuring with. But as a general rule:
The degree of accuracy is half a unit each side
of the unit of measure
44

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Degree of Accuracy
If your instrument measures in
"1"s then any value between 6
and 7 is measured as "7"
If your instrument measures in

"2"s then any value between 7
and 9 is measured as "8"
45
Exercise 2.1
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What are the consideration that need to

be taken during a taping procedure?
Describe how you would carry out a
taping process to determine the length of
2 pegs on a hilly slope approximately 60
m apart.
46
Exercise 2.2
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Briefly describe the type of errors in linear

measurement and explain their sources of
error. What type of errors are classified as
blunders and mistake in linear
measurement?
47

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www.uthm.edu.

With Wisdom, We Explore

One of the fundamentals of geomatic

With Wisdom, We Explore

Many varied methods have been developed to

With Wisdom, We Explore

Linear measurement is the basis of all surveying.

The ability to pace distance is very useful

With Wisdom, We Explore

With Wisdom, We Explore

Taping applies to measurement using a steel

With Wisdom, We Explore

With Wisdom, We Explore

Conditions for Taping

With Wisdom, We Explore

With Wisdom, We Explore

With Wisdom, We Explore

The corrections are categorized as follow:

With Wisdom, We Explore

The corrections are categorized as follow:

With Wisdom, We Explore

The corrections are categorized as follow:

With Wisdom, We Explore

Temperature Correction = L(tf ts)

With Wisdom, We Explore

With Wisdom, We Explore

EDMs are very useful in measuring

With Wisdom, We Explore

EDMs measure the time required for a

With Wisdom, We Explore

A Total station is an electronic/optical instrument

With Wisdom, We Explore

Total station & prism

With Wisdom, We Explore

Summary of linear distance measurement techniques

With Wisdom, We Explore

With Wisdom, We Explore

The significant figures of a measurement

With Wisdom, We Explore

With Wisdom, We Explore

With Wisdom, We Explore

Mathematic Operations contd

If the digits is 5 or larger, drop this digit and

With Wisdom, We Explore

With Wisdom, We Explore

The main task in geomatic measurements is to

With Wisdom, We Explore

A well designed survey will eliminate

With Wisdom, We Explore

Systematic nor Cumulative Errors

With Wisdom, We Explore

Systematic nor Cumulative Errors

With Wisdom, We Explore

Systematic nor Cumulative Errors

With Wisdom, We Explore

Compensating or Accidental Errors

With Wisdom, We Explore

Compensating or Accidental Errors

With Wisdom, We Explore

Gross / Blunders Errors

With Wisdom, We Explore

Gross / Blunders Errors

With Wisdom, We Explore

ACCURACY & PRECISION