Heat Exchanger Design

Anand V P Gurumoorthy
Associate Professor
Chemical Engineering Division
School of Mechanical & Building Sciences
VIT University
Vellore, India

Heat Exchanger Classification

Recuperative:

Cold and hot fluid flow through the unit without

mixing with each other. The transfer of heat occurs
through the metal wall.

Regenerative:

Same heating surface is alternately exposed to hot

and cold fluid. Heat from hot fluid is stored by
packings or solids; this heat is passed over to the cold
fluid.

Direct contact:

Hot and cold fluids are in direct contact and mixing

occurs among them; mass transfer and heat transfer
occur simultaneously.

Heat Exchanger Standards and

Codes
British Standard BS-3274
TEMA standards are universally used.
TEMA standards cover following classes of
exchangers:

Class R designates severe requirements of

petroleum and other related processing applications
Class C moderate requirements of commercial and
general process applications
Class B specifies design and fabrication for chemical
process service.

Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger

Most commonly used type of heat transfer

equipment in the chemical and allied industries.

Advantages:
The configuration gives a large surface area in a small
volume.
Good mechanical layout: a good shape for pressure
operation.
Uses well-established fabrication techniques.
Can be constructed from a wide range of materials.
Easily cleaned.
Well established design procedures.

Types of Shell and Tube Heat

Exchangers
Fixed tube design
Simplest and cheapest type.
Tube bundle cannot be removed for cleaning.
No provision for differential expansion of shell and
tubes.
Use of this type limited to temperature difference
upto 800C.

Floating head design

More versatile than fixed head exchangers.

Suitable for higher temperature differentials.
Bundles can be removed and cleaned (fouling liquids)

Design of Shell and Tube Heat

Exchangers
Kern method:

Does not take into account bypass and leakage streams.

Simple to apply and accurate enough for preliminary design
calculations.
Restricted to a fixed baffle cut (25%).

Bell-Delaware method
Most widely used.
Takes into account:

Leakage through the gaps between tubes and baffles and the

baffles and shell.

Bypassing of flow around the gap between tube bundle and shell.

Stream Analysis method (by Tinker)

More rigorous and generic.

Best suited for computer calculations; basis for most commercial
computer codes.

Construction Details Tube

Dimensions
Tube diameters in the range 5/8 inch (16 mm)

to 2 inch (50 mm).

Smaller diameters (5/8 to 1 inch) preferred since
this gives compact and cheap heat exchangers.
Larger tubes for heavily fouling fluids.
Steel tubes BS 3606; Other tubes BS 3274.
Preferred tube lengths are 6 ft, 8 ft, 12 ft, 16 ft,
20 ft and 24 ft; optimum tube length to shell
diameter ratio ~ 5 10.
in (19 mm) is a good starting trial tube
diameter.

Construction Details Tube

Arrangements
Tubes usually arranged in equilateral
triangular, square or rotated square
patterns.

Tube pitch, Pt, is 1.25 times OD.

Construction Details - Shells

Shell should be a close fit to the tube

bundle to reduce bypassing.

Shell-bundle clearance will depend on type
of heat exchanger.

Construction Details - Shell-Bundle

Clearance

Construction Details Tube Count

Bundle diameter depends not only on number of tubes but also
number of tube passes.

N
Db d 0 t
K1

Nt is the number of tubes

Db is the bundle diameter (mm)
D0 is tube outside diameter (mm)

n1 and K1 are constants

1 / n1

Construction Details - Baffles

Baffles are used:

To direct the fluid stream across the tubes

To increase the fluid velocity
To improve the rate of transfer

Most commonly used baffle is the single segmental

baffle.

Optimal baffle cut ~ 20-25%

Basic Design Procedure

General equation for heat transfer is:

Q UA Tm

where Q is the rate of heat transfer (duty),

U is the overall heat transfer coefficient,
A is the area for heat transfer
Tm is the mean temperature difference
We are not doing a mechanical design, only a
thermal design.

Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient

Overall coefficient given by:
d
d 0 ln 0
1
1
1
di d0 1 d0 1

U 0 h0 hod
2k w
d i hid d i hi

h0 (hi) is outside (inside) film coefficient

hod (hid) is outside (inside) dirt coefficient
kw is the tube wall conductivity
do (di) is outside (inside) tube diameters

Individual Film Coefficients

Magnitude of individual coefficients will depend
on:

Nature of transfer processes (conduction, convection,

radiation, etc.)
Physical properties of fluids
Fluid flow rates
Physical layout of heat transfer surface

Physical layout cannot be determined until area

is known; hence design is a trial-and-error
procedure.

Typical Overall Coefficients

Typical Overall Coefficients

Fouling Factors (Dirt Coeffs)

Difficult to predict and usually based on
past experience

Mean Temperature Difference

(Temperature Driving Force)
Q UA Tm

To determine A, Tm must be estimated

True counter-current flow logarithmic
temperature difference (LMTD)

LMTD
LMTD is given by:
Tlm

(T1 t 2 ) (T2 t1 )
T t
ln 1 2
T2 t1

where T1 is the hot fluid temperature, inlet

T2 is the hot fluid temperature, outlet
t1 is the cold fluid temperature, inlet
t2 is the cold fluid temperature, outlet

Counter-current Flow
Temperature Proflies

1:2 Heat Exchanger Temperature

Profiles

True Temperature Difference

Obtained from LMTD using a correction
factor:

Tm Ft Tlm

Tm is the true temperature difference

Ft is the correction factor
Ft is related to two dimensionless ratios:
(t 2 t1 )
(T1 T2 )
S
R
(T1 t1 )
(t 2 t1 )

Temp Correction Factor Ft

Temperature correction factor, one shell pass, two or more even tube passes

Fluid Allocation: Shell or Tubes?

Corrosion
Fouling
Fluid temperatures
Operating pressures
Pressure drop
Viscosity
Stream flow rates

Shell and Tube Fluid Velocities

High velocities give high heat-transfer

coefficients but also high pressure drop.

Velocity must be high enough to prevent settling
of solids, but not so high as to cause erosion.
High velocities will reduce fouling
For liquids, the velocities should be as follows:
Tube side: Process liquid 1-2m/s
Maximum 4m/s if required to reduce fouling
Water 1.5 2.5 m/s
Shell side: 0.3 1 m/s

Pressure Drop
As the process fluids move through the

heat exchanger there is associated

pressure drop.
For liquids: viscosity < 1mNs/m2 35kN/m2
Viscosity 1 10 mNs/m2 50-70kN/m2

Tube-side Heat Transfer Coefficient

For turbulent flow inside conduits of uniform cross-section, Sieder0.14
Tate equation is applicable:
0.8
0.33

Nu C Re Pr
w
Nu

hi d e

kf

u d
Re t e

Pr

Cp

C=0.021 for gases

=0.023 for low viscosity liquids
=0.027 for viscous liquids
= fluid viscosity at bulk fluid temperature
w=fluid viscosity at the wall

kf

Tube-side Heat Transfer Coefficient

Butterworth equation:
St E Re 0.205 Pr 0.505
St Nu

Re Pr

hi

ut C p

E 0.0225 exp 0.0225 (ln Pr) 2

For laminar flow (Re<2000):

d
Nu 1.86(Re Pr)0.33 e
L

0.33

0.14

If Nu given by above equation is less than 3.5, it

should be taken as 3.5

Heat Transfer Factor, jh

j factor similar to friction factor used for
pressure drop:

hi d i
0.33

jh Re Pr
kf
w

0.14

This equation is valid for both laminar and

turbulent flows.

Tube Side Heat Transfer Factor

Heat Transfer Coefficients for

Water
Many equations for hi have developed

specifically for water. One such equation is:

4200(1.35 0.02t )ut0.8
hi
d i0.2

where hi is the inside coefficient (W/m2 0C)

t is the water temperature (0C)
ut is water velocity (m/s)
dt is tube inside diameter (mm)

Tube-side Pressure Drop

L m
u 2
Pt N p 8 j f 2.5 t
d i w
2

where P is tube-side pressure drop (N/m2)

Np is number of tube-side passes
ut is tube-side velocity (m/s)
L is the length of one tube
m is 0.25 for laminar and 0.14 for turbulent
jf is dimensionless friction factor for heat
exchanger tubes

Tube Side Friction Factor

Shell-side Heat Transfer and

Pressure Drop
Kerns method
Bells method

Procedure for Kerns Method

Calculate area for cross-flow As for the hypothetical row
of tubes in the shell equator.
As

( p t d 0 ) Ds b
pt

pt is the tube pitch

d0 is the tube outside diameter
Ds is the shell inside diameter
lB is the baffle spacing, m.
Calculate shell-side mass velocity Gs and linear velocity,
us.
Ws
G
Gs
us s

As
where Ws is the fluid mass flow rate in the shell in kg/s

Procedure for Kerns Method

Calculate the shell side equivalent
diameter (hydraulic diameter).

For a square pitch arrangement:

pt2 d 02

4
4

de
d 0

For a triangular pitch arrangement

pt
1 d 02

4 0.87 pt
2
2
4

de
d 0
2

Shell-side Reynolds Number

The shell-side Reynolds number is given by:
Re

Gs d e

us de

The coefficient hs is given by:

Nu

hs d e

jh Re Pr1 / 3
kf
w

0.14

where jh is given by the following chart

Shell Side Heat Transfer Factor

Shell-side Pressure Drop

The shell-side pressure drop is given by:
D
Ps 8 j f s
de

2
s

0.14

where jf is the friction factor given by

following chart.

Shell Side Friction Factor

(Figure 8 in notes)

(T1 T2 )
(t 2 t1 )

(t 2 t1 )
(T1 t1 )

(Figure 4 in notes)

Q UA Tm

1 / n1

N
Db d 0 t
K1

(Figure 2)

hi

4200(1.35 0.02t )ut0.8

d i0.2

(Figure 9 in notes)

As

( p t d 0 ) Ds b
pt

p
1 d2
4 t 0.87 pt 0
2
2 4
de
d 0
2

(Table 3 in notes)

d
d 0 ln 0
1
1
1
di d0 1 d0 1

U 0 h0 hod
2k w
d i hid d i hi

(Figure 10 in notes)

 L m
u 2
Pt N p 8 j f 2.5 t
d i w
2

(Figure 12 in notes)
D
Ps 8 j f s
de

u s2

2 w

0.14

Bells Method
In Bells method, the heat transfer

coefficient and pressure drop are

estimated from correlations for flow over
ideal tube banks.
The effects of leakage, by-passing, and
flow in the window zone are allowed for
by applying correction factors.

Bells Method Shell-side Heat

Transfer Coefficient
hs hoc Fn Fw Fb FL
where

hoc is heat transfer coeff for cross flow

over ideal tube banks
Fn is correction factor to allow for no.
of vertical tube rows
Fw is window effect correction factor
Fb is bypass stream correction factor
FL is leakage correction factor

Bells Method Ideal Cross Flow

Coefficient
The Re for cross-flow through the tube
bank is given by:
Re

Gs d 0

u s d 0

Gs is the mass flow rate per unit area

d0 is tube OD
Heat transfer coefficient is given by:
hoc d 0
1/ 3

jh Re Pr
kf
w

0.14

Bells Method Tube Row

Correction Factor
For Re>2100, Fn is obtained as a function
of Ncv (no. of tubes between baffle tips)
from the chart below:

For Re 100<Re<2100, Fn=1.0

' 0.18
F

(
N
For Re<100, n
c)

Bells Method Window Correction

Factor
Fw, the window correction factor is obtained from the
following chart:

where Rw is the ratio of bundle cross-sectional area in

the window zone to the tube bundle cross-sectional area
(obtained from simple formulae).

Bells Method Bypass Correction

Factor
Clearance area between the bundle and
the shell

Ab B ( Ds Db )

For the case of no sealing strips, Fb as a

function of Ab/As can be obtained from the

following chart

Bells Method Bypass Correction

Factor
For sealing strips, for Ns<Ncv/2 (Ns is the
number of baffle strips)

2N
A

s
Fb exp b 1

As N cv

1/ 3

where =1.5 for Re<100 and =1.35 for Re>100.

Bells Method Leakage Correction

Factor
Tube-baffle clearance area Atb is given by:

Atb

0.8d 0
(Nt N w )
2

Shell-baffle clearance area Asb is given by:

Cs Ds
Asb
(2 b )
2

where Cs is baffle to shell clearance and b is the angle subtended by baffle

chord
( Atb 2 Asb )
AL=Atb+Asb

FL 1 L

AL

where L is a factor obtained from following chart

Coefficient for FL, Heat Transfer

Shell-side Pressure Drop

Involves three components:
Pressure drop in cross-flow zone
Pressure drop in window zone
Pressure drop in end zone

Pressure Drop in Cross Flow Zone

Pc Pi F F
'
b

'
L

where Pi pressure drop calculated for an equivalent ideal tube

bank
Fb is bypass correction factor
FL is leakage correction factor

Pi 8 j f N cv
2 w
2
s

where jf is given by the following chart

Ncv is number of tube rows crossed
us is shell-side velocity

0.14

Friction Factor for Cross Flow Banks

Bells Method Bypass Correction

Factor for Pressure Drop

2N
A
s
Fb' exp b 1
As N cv

1/ 3

is 5.0 for laminar flow, Re<100

4.0 for transitional and turbulent flow, Re>100
Ab is the clearance area between the bundle and shell
Ns is the number of sealing strips encountered by bypass
stream
Ncv is the number of tube rows encountered in the crossflow section

Bells Method Leakage Factor for

Pressure Drop
( Atb 2 Asb )
F 1

A
L

'
L

'
L

where Atb is the tube to baffle clearance area

Asb is the shell to baffle clearance area
AL is total leakage area = Atb+Asb
L is factor obtained from following chart

Coefficient for FL

Pressure Drop in Window Zones

Pw FL' (2.0 0.6 N wv )

u z2
2

where us is the geometric mean velocity

uz uwus
uw is the velocity in the window zone
W
uw s
Aw
Ws is the shell-side fluid mass flow
Nwv is number of restrictions for cross-flow in
window zone, approximately equal to the number of
tube rows.

Pressure Drop in End Zones

( N wv N cv ) '
Pe Pi
Fb
N cv

Ncv is the number of tube rows

encountered in the cross-flow section

Nwv is number of restrictions for cross-flow
in window zone, approximately equal to
the number of tube rows.

Bells Method Total Shell-side

Pressure Drop
Ps 2 end zones ( Nb 1) crossflow zones
Nb window zones

Ps 2Pe ( N b 1)Pc N b Pw

Effect of Fouling
Above calculation assumes clean tubes

Effect of fouling on pressure drop is given by table

above

Condensers
Construction of a condenser is similar to other shell and
tube heat exchangers, but with a wider baffle spacing

l B Ds

Four condenser configurations:

Horizontal, with condensation in the shell

Horizontal, with condensation in the tubes
Vertical, with condensation in the shell
Vertical, with condensation in the tubes

Horizontal shell-side and vertical tube-side are the most

commonly used types of condenser.

Heat Transfer Mechanisms

Filmwise condensation

Normal mechanism for heat transfer in commercial condensers

Dropwise condensation

Will give higher heat transfer coefficients but is unpredictable

Not yet considered a practical proposition for the design of
condensers

In the Nusselt model of condensation laminar flow is

assumed in the film, and heat transfer is assumed to

take place entirely by conduction through the film.
Nusselt model strictly applied only at low liquid and
vapor rates when the film is undisturbed.
At higher rates, turbulence is induced in the liquid film
increasing the rate of heat transfer over that predicted
by Nusselt model.

Condensation Outside Horizontal

Tubes
( v ) g
(hc )1 0.95k L L L

1/ 3

where (hc)1 is the mean condensation film coefficient, for a single tube
kL is the condensate thermal conductivity
L is the condensate density
v is the vapour density
L is the condensate viscosity
g is the gravitational acceleration
is the tube loading, the condensate flow per unit length of tube.
If there are Nr tubes in a vertical row and the condensate is assumed to
flow smoothly from row to row, and if the flow is laminar, the top tube
film coefficient is given by:
(hc ) Nr (hc )1 Nr1/ 4

Condensation Outside Horizontal

Tubes
In practice, condensate will not flow smoothly from

tube to tube.
Kerns estimate of mean coefficient for a tube bundle
is given by:
( v ) g
(hc ) b 0.95k L L L

L h

1/ 3

N r1/ 6

Wc
LN t

L is the tube length

Wc is the total condensate flow
Nt is the total number of tubes in the bundle
Nr is the average number of tubes in a vertical tube
row
For low-viscosity condensates the correction for the
number of tube rows is generally ignored.

Condensation Inside and Outside

Vertical Tubes
For condensation inside and outside vertical tubes the
Nusselt model gives:

( v ) g
(hc ) v 0.926k L L L

L v

1/ 3

where (hc)v is the mean condensation coefficient

v is the vertical tube loading, condensate per unit tube
perimeter
Above equation applicable for Re<30
For higher Re the above equation gives a conservative
(safe) estimate.
For Re>2000, turbulent flow; situation analyzed by
Colburn and results in following chart.

Colburns Results

Boyko-Kruzhilin Correlation

A correlation for shear-controlled condensation in tubes; simple to use.

The correlation gives mean coefficient between two points at which vapor quality, x, (mass fraction of
vapour) is known.

(hc ) BK

L v
J11/ 2 J 21/ 2
hi
where
J

1,2 refer to inlet and outlet conditions respectively

k
hi 0.021 L
di

In a condenser, the inlet stream will normally be saturated vapour and vapour will be totally condensed. For
these conditions:

(hc ) BK

0.8 0.43
Re Pr

L
1

v
hi

For design of condensers with condensation inside the tubes and downward vapor flow, coefficient should
be evaluated using Colburns method and Boyko-Kruzhilin correlation and the higher value selected.

Flooding in Vertical Tubes

When the vapor flows up the tube, tubes should

not flood.
Flooding should not occur if the following
condition is satisfied:

1/ 2
v

v1/ 4 u1L/ 2 1L/ 4 0.6gdi ( L v )1/ 4

where uv and uL are velocities of vapor and

liquid and di is in metres.
The critical condition will occur at the bottom of
the tube, so vapor and liquid velocities should
be evaluated at this point.

Condensation Inside Horizontal

Tubes
When condensation occurs, the heat transfer coefficient at any point along
the tube will depend on the flow pattern at that point.

No general satisfactory method exists that will give accurate predictions

over a wide flow range.

Two Flow Models

Two flow models:

Stratified flow
Limiting condition at low condensate and vapor rates
Annular flow
Limiting condition at high vapor and low condensate rates

For stratified flow, the condensate film coefficient can be estimated as:
( v ) g
(hc ) s 0.76k L L L

L h

1/ 3

For annular flow, the Boyko-Kruzhilin equation can be used

For condenser design, both annular and stratified flow should be considered and the higher value of
mean coefficient should be selected.

 Condensation of steam
For air-free steam a coefficient of 8000 W/m2-0C should be
used.

Mean Temperature Difference

A pure, saturated, vapor will condense at a constant
temperature, at constant pressure.
For an isothermal process such as this, the LMTD is given by:

Tlm

( t 2 t1 )
T t
ln sat 1
Tsat t 2

where Tsat is saturation temperature of vapor

t1 (t2) is the inlet (outlet) coolant temperature
No correction factor for multiple passes is needed.