Types

Due to Frequency hum

Supply ripple
Switching & Line transients
Ground Current
Atmospheric & steller noise
Thermal (Johnson / white) noise
Flicker noise
Short noise
Random noise
Man made noise

Ansari Vaqar
Capacity of a Channel
The most important question for a communication channel is
the maximum rate at which it can transfer information.
There is a theoretical maximum rate at which information
passes error free over the channel, called the channel
capacity C.
The famous Hartley-Shannon Law states that the channel
capacity C is given by:
C=B*log(1+(S/N)) b/s
where B is the bandwidth, S/N is the signal-to-noise ratio.


Fundamental Limitations
Therefore, there are two factors that
determine the capacity of a channel:
Bandwidth
Noise
Noise
Internal and External Noise
Internal Noise: Generated by components
within a communication system (thermal
noise)
External Noise:
Atmospheric noise (electrical discharges)
Man-made noise (ignition noise)
Interference (multiple transmission paths)
Signals and Noise
Signal to Noise Ratio

Types of Noise

Signal to Noise Ratio Enhancement
Signal Averaging
Filtering
Signal-Noise Ratio
The signal is what you are measuring that is the result
of the presence of your analyte

Noise is extraneous information that can interfere
with or alter the signal. It can not be completely
eliminated, but hopefully reduced!
True Noise is considered random!
Indeterminate error
Since noise can not be eliminated (it is random),
we are more interested in the S/N ratio than the
intensity of the noise



This is mathematically the inverse of the RSD, or
we can say that



Signal
Noise

mean
standard deviation

X
s

S
N

1
RSD
Types of Noise..
Chemical Noise
Undesired chemical reactions
Reaction/technique/instrument specific

Instrumental Noise
Germane to all types of instruments
Can often be controlled physically (e.g. temp) or electronically
(software averaging)
Instrumental Noise
Thermal (Johnson) Noise:
Thermal agitation of electrons affects their smooth flow.
Due to different velocities and movement of electrons in electrical
components.
Dependent upon both temperature and the range of frequencies
(frequency bandwidths) being utilized.
Can be reduced by reducing temperature of electrical components.
Eliminated at absolute zero.
Considered white noise because it is independent of frequency
(but dependent on frequency bandwidth or the range of
frequencies being measured).
It is important to note that thermal noise, although
dependent on the frequency bandwidth, is independent
of frequency itself.

For this reason, it is sometimes termed white noise by
analogy to white light, which contain all visible
frequencies.

Also note that thermal noise in resistive circuit
elements is independent of physical size of the
resistor.
Shot Noise:
Occurs when electrons or charged particles cross junctions
(different materials, vacuums, etc.)
Considered white noise because it is independent of
frequency.
It is the same at any frequency but also dependent on frequency
bandwidth
Due to the statistical variation of the flow of electrons (current)
across some junction
Some of the electrons jump across the junction right away
Some of the electrons take their time jumping across the junction
Flicker Noise
Frequency dependent
Significant at frequencies less than 100 Hz
Magnitude is inversely proportional to frequency
Results in long-term drift in electronic components
Can be controlled by using special wire resistors instead of
the less expensive carbon type.


Environmental Noise
Unlimited possible sources
Can often be eliminated by eliminating the source
Other noise sources can not be eliminated!!!!!!
Methods of eliminating it
Moving the instrument somewhere else
Isolating /conditioning the instruments power source
Controlling temperature in the room
Control expansion/contraction of components in instrument
Eliminating interferences
Stray light from open windows, panels on instrument
Turning off radios, TVs, other instruments
Noise factor
IEEE Standards: The noise factor, at a specified
input frequency, is defined as the ratio of (1) the
total noise power per unit bandwidth available at
the output port when noise temperature of the
input termination is standard (290 K) to (2) that
portion of (1) engendered at the input frequency by
the input termination.




source to due noise output available
power noise output available
F

Noise factor (cont.)

It is a measure of the degradation of SNR due
to the noise added -
Implies that SNR gets worse as we process the
signal
Spot noise factor
The answer is the bandwidth


i
a
o
o
i
i
o i
i a i
N f G
N
S
N
N
S
S N
S N f G N
F
) (
1
) ) ( (

1
o
i
SNR
SNR
F
kT
N
F
a
1
Quantitative measure of receiver
performance wrt noise for a given
bandwidth
Noise figure
Typically 8-10 db for modern receivers
Multistage (cascaded) system


) log( 10 F NF
1 2 1 2 1
3
1
2
1
1
...
1 1

n
n
G G G
F
G G
F
G
F
F F

Historical Background
1844 The Telegraph was invented by Samuel Morse
1864 James Clerk Maxwell formulated the electromagnetic theory
1875 The Telephone was invented by Alexander Graham Bell
1887 Heinrich Hertz confirmed the existence of radio waves
1901 Marconi received a radio signal, 1700 miles across the Atlantic
1904 John Ambrose Fleming invented the vacuum-tube diode
1906 John Ambrose Fleming invented the vacuum-tube triode
1918 Edwin Armstrong invented the superheterodyne radio receiver
1928 The Television system was demonstrated by Philo Farnsworth
1933 Edwin Armstrong demonstrated the Frequency Modulation (FM)
Ansari Vaqar
1946 The first computer, ENIAC, was built at Pennsylvania university
1948 The transistor was invented at Bell Laboratories
1958 The first Integrated Circuit (IC) was produced by Robert Noyce
1962 The Telstar satellite, built by Bell Laboratories, was lunched
1971 The first computer network, called the ARPANET, was built
1985 The ARPANET was renamed the Internet
1983 - Advanced Mobile Phone System (AMPS) was lunched in US
1991 - Global System for Mobile (GSM) was lunched in Europe
Historical Background
Ansari Vaqar
A communication Model
Source - generates data to be transmitted, examples are telephones and computers
Transmitter - converts data into transmittable signals
Transmission System - carries data from source to destination
Receiver - converts received signal into data
Destination - takes incoming data
Ansari Vaqar
Communications Tasks
Transmission system utilization Addressing
Interfacing Routing
Signal generation Recovery

Synchronization Message formatting
Exchange management Security

Error detection and correction Network management
Flow control
Ansari Vaqar
Data Communication Model
1. user keys in message m comprising bits g buffered in source PC memory
2. input data is transferred to I/O device (transmitter) as sequence of bits g(t) using voltage
shifts
3. transmitter converts these into a signal s(t) suitable for transmission media being used
4. whilst transiting media signal may be impaired so received signal r(t) may differ from s(t)
5. receiver decodes signal recovering g(t) as estimate of original g(t)
6. which is buffered in destination PC memory as bits g being the received message m
Ansari Vaqar
Elements of digital communication systems
Source of
Information
Source
encoder
Channel
encoder

Modulator


Channel

User of
information
Source
decoder
Channel
decoder

Demodulator

Noise and interference
(Unwanted signals)
1. The information source generate a message signal
2. The source encoder removes redundant information from the message signal and produce a source
code word
3. The channel encoder add some bits for the purpose of error detection and correction and produce the
channel code word
4. The modulator represent each symbol of the channel code word by a corresponding analog symbols
(resulting in signal waveform) suitable for the transmission through the channel
5. Noise and interfering signals corrupt the transmitted signal in the channel
6. Channel types: guided media (twisted pair, coaxial, fiber optic), unguided (wireless)
7. At the receiver, the received signal is processed in reverse order to that in the transmitter so as to
recover the message signal
Ansari Vaqar
Cellular telephone system
The cellular mobile telephone system consists of:
Mobile Stations (MS), Base Stations (BS) and Mobile Switching Center
(MSC), connected to the Public Switching Telephone Network (PSTN)
Ansari Vaqar
Satellite Communication system
The information-bearing signal is transmitted from the earth terminal to the
satellite via the uplink, amplified by the transponder (electronic circuitry on
board the satellite), and then retransmitted from the satellite via the downlink
to the other earth terminal
Ansari Vaqar
Computer Networks and the Internet
Ansari Vaqar
11/17
OSI Network Model
Ansari Vaqar
4/44
Electromagnetic Spectrum
12/17
Operating frequency of various guided and unguided
transmission techniques
Ansari Vaqar
Atmospheric Transparency for Electromagnetic
waves
Ansari Vaqar
Electromagnetic Spectrum
Band Frequency
range
Propagation
characteristics
Typical use
ELF (extremely low frequency)

30 to 300 Hz

Ground Wave (GW) propagation Power line frequencies
VF (voice frequency) 300 to 3000 Hz GW propagation Used by the telephone
system for analog
subscriber lines
VLF (very low frequency) 3 to 30 kHz GW propagation Long-range navigation;
submarine communication

LF (low frequency) 30 to 300 kHz GW propagation Long-range navigation; marine
communication
MF (medium frequency) 300 to 3000 kHz Sky-Wave (SW) ionospheric
propagation
AM broadcasting

HF (high frequency) 3 to 30 MHz SW ionospheric propagation

international broadcasting,
military communication; long-
distance aircraft and ship
communication

Ansari Vaqar
Electromagnetic Spectrum
Band Frequency
range
Propagation
characteristics
Typical use
VHF (very high frequency)

30 to 300 MHz SW ionospheric and tropospheric
propagation;
Line-Of-Sight (LOS) Propagation
VHF television; FM broadcast
AM aircraft communication;
Aircraft navigational aids
UHF (ultra high frequency) 300 to 3000 MHz LOS Propagation
UHF television;
cellular telephone; radar;
microwave links; personal
communications systems
SHF (super high frequency)

3 to 30 GHz LOS Propagation Satellite communication; radar;
terrestrial microwave links;
wireless local loop
EHF (extremely high frequency)

30 to 300 GHz LOS Propagation Experimental; wireless local
loop
Infrared 300 GHz to 400 THz LOS Propagation Infrared LANs; consumer
electronic applications

Visible light 400 THz to 900 THz LOS Propagation Optical communication
Ansari Vaqar