T.P.O.

N 2 - UNIT 1
The verb and its complementation
Multi word verbs: the use of
multi word lexical verbs, phrasal,
prepositional and phrasal
prepositional verbs. Idiomaticity.
Particle movement
Catenative verbs: verbs followed
by non-finite verb forms: to-,
bare infinitives, ed- and ing-
participles. Semantic implications
of catenative patterns.





Im looking for my keys. Have you seen them? Verb + preposition
Look out! Theres a car coming! Verb + adverb
A snob is someone who looks down on
people of a lower social class.
Verb + adverb +
preposition
MULTI-WORD
VERB
VERB + PARTICLE
Adverb
Preposition
Adverb + prep.
3 types
Intransitive
Transitive (SEPARABLE)
Transitive
Transitive
MULTI-WORD VERB FREE COMBINATION
Ex: The judge looked into the case. Ex. The judge looked into the prisoners eyes
She put on her slippers
She put her slippers on
The plane took off on time
He lived on hamburgers
Ive run out of cash
If the addition of the particle(s) of the verb, it is usually called
(because it has the meaning of a phrase)




There are so many different types of phrasal verbs that its more convenient to call all
combinations of verb + particle(s)
Many multi-word units function like a , which have


These multi-word verbs fall into 4 classes:

= Their meaning cannot be predicted from
the meaning of each individual word
PHRASAL
VERBS
PREPOSITIONAL
VERBS
PHRASAL-
PREPOSITIONAL
VERBS
OTHER MULTI-
WORD VERB
CONSTRUCTIONS
Verb + adverbial particle
E.g. carry out
Find out
Verb + preposition
E.g. look at
Listen to
Verb + adverb +
preposition
E.g. get away with
A single-word verbs + an
adverb/preposition with
separate meaning
E.g. go back
Come down
Its hard to make
an absolute
distinction.
Its better to think
of a continuum
(pag. 19)
They can be:
Intransitive
V + Adv
(inseparable)
Ex: The plane
took off.
Transitive
V+ Adv + O
(separable)
Ex: Susan took
off her shoes
A few are
!
Ex: end up
turn out
wind up
INTRANSITIVE TRANSITIVE
Break down
Catch on
Come back
Come in
Come on
Fall out
Fall through
Fit in

Get by
Get up
Go away
Go on
Go out
Grow up
Look out
Pass out
Shut up

Sit down
Stand up
Stay on
Take off
Turn up
Wake up
Watch out
Act sth out
Bottle sth up
Bring sth in
Bring sb up
Bring sth up
Carry sth out
Do sth up
Fill sth in/out
Find sth out
Fix sth up
Give sth away
Give sth up
Hold sth up
Keep sth up
Leave sth/sb out
Let sth out
Look sth up
Make sth up
Pay sb back
Pick sth up
Point sth out
Pull sb/sth down
Put sth away
Put sth off
Put sth on
Put sb up
Run sb down
Set sth up
Take sth over
Take sth up
Throw sth away
Turn sb/sth down
Turn sb/sth out

Inseparable
They take a prepositional object 2 major structural patterns



Most verbs occur with only one pattern, except:
Apply NP to | Connect NP with | Provide NP for | Ask NP for | hear NP about | know NP about
We can analyze the structure of a prepositional verb in 2 ways:

V+ PREPOSITION + OBJECT (TRANSITIVE)
NP + V + PREP + NP
EX: It just looks like the barrel
NP + V+ NP+ PREP + NP
Ex: He based his prediction on first-
hand experience
[Common with passive verbs]
A single-word lexical verb followed by a PreP, which
functions as an adverbial. Its usually possible to insert
another adverbial between the V and the PrepP
A multi-word unit (a single prep verb), which often has an
idiomatic meaning and can be replaiced by a single verb
Ex.: I never though much about it Ex.: stand for it (=tolerate)
PREPOSITIONAL VERBS Used in the passive
Call for sb
Care for sb
Come across sth
Cope with sth
Deal with sth
Fall for sth
Feel like sth
Get at sb/sth
Get over sth
Get through
Go into sth
Go with sb
Lead to sth
Look after sb/ath
Look at sth
Look into sth
Look like sth
Look round sth
Part with sth
Pay for sth
Rely on sb/sth
Run into sb
See to sth
Send for sb
Stand for sth
Stick to sth
Take after sb
Talk about sth
Think about sth
Be aimed at (intended for)
Be applied to
Be considered as
Be derived from
Be known as
Be regarded as
Be used as
Be used in


Ex: Look forward to | get out of (the most frequent)
A few Phrasal-prepositinal verbs ca take 2 objects:
Ex: I could hand him over to Sadig
Ex: What put you up to?
They can sometimes be replaced by a single lexical verb. Ex: get out of it avoid it
Theyre transitive and can be made passive.
Non separable exception when they have 2 objects:
Ex: we took her up on her offer
Ex: we let James in on the plan.
We can only add an adverb between the 2 articles: Ex: He stands up strongly for his principle.
Common in conversation and fiction.
Limited range of meanings (mainly ACTIVIY)
V+ ADVERBIAL PARTICLE + PREPOSITION + OBJECT (TRANSITIVE)

PHRASAL PREPOSITIONAL VERBS
Usually in the
passive
Back out of sth
Break in on sth
Catch up on sth/sb
Catch up with sb
Cheack up on sb/sth
Come across as sth
Come down to sth
Come up with sth
Cut down on sth
Do away with sth
Drop in on sb
Face up to sb
Get away with sth
Get back to sth
Get on with sth
Get out of sth
Give in to sth
Go out for sth
Go up to sb
Keep away from sb/sth
Keep up with sb
Look down on sb
Look forward to sth
Look out for sb/sth
Look up to sb
Make away with sth
Move on to sth
Put up with sb/sth
Run away with sb
Run off with sth
Stand up for sth
Turn away from sth
Walk out on sth/sb
Be cut off from
Be made up of
Be set out in
Verbs are also used in relatively fixed or idiomatic multi-word constructions:





Verb + prepositional phrase combinations Verb + verb combinations
Verb + noun phrase combinations
Many of them are idiomatic. Such combinations
function semantically as a unit that can often be
replaced by a single lexical verb:
Ex: bear in mind (remember)| come as a surprise
(surprise) | take into account (consider)
There are a few verbs (make, take, have, do, etc)
that can be used for many meanings when
combining with NP to form idiomatic verbal
expressions. In many cases, the combination also
includes a following preposition:
Ex: make fun of | have a look at | do your hair | take
care of
A second idiomatic category involves verb + verb
combinations, such as make do (with) and let NP
go/be:
Ex: I think it is time to let it be
Patients had to make do with quiche or ham salad
BE | HAVE | DO
MAIN VERB BE AUXILIARY VERB BE
Be the copula- is the most
important copular verb in English

It links the subject NP with:
a subject predicative *
or
an obligatory adverbial*
Ex: Radio waves are useful
She was in Olies room a lot
Be has 2 distinct grammatical
functions:
a) PROGRESIVE ASPECT
(be + ing-participle)
PASSIVE VOICE
(be + ed-participle)
They can appear together in the
same clause
Ex: A mutual investment fund for Eastern
Europe is being launched today with the
backing of Continental Grain
MAIN VERB HAVE
AUXILIARY VERB HAVE
As a transitive main verb, have is as
common as the most common lexical verbs.
It is most common in conversation
and least common in academic prose.

It can be used with different meanings:

In addition, HAVE occurs as part of the
semi-modal HAVE TO (=must)

Have also occurs in a number of idiomatic
multi-word phrases
Describing eating or drinking:
The kids had some hot dogs.
Have is the marker of PERFECT ASPECT:
*Past tense HAD marks past perfect
*Present HAVE/HAS marks present perfect
Telling family connections:
She has a husband and a child.
Showing physical possession:
John has three cars.
Showing where something exists:
Its nice to have a young person about the house again.
Linking a person to an abstract quality:
I hope she has fun
Ex : Ill have to blank it out.
Linking an inanimate subject to an abstract quality:
In this extensions soil science will always have a major role
Showing that someone causes something to be done:
Maybe you should have it dyed black as well.
Ex : Ill have a look.
MAIN VERB DO
DO has an activity meaning. It can take a direct object:
Ex: He did a wonderful thing
Or an indirect object + direct object:
Ex: Will you do me a favour?

DO commonly combines with a NP to form relatively fixed,
idiomatic expressions, in which do has little lexical content:
Main verb DO
as a transitive pro-verb
Main verb DO
as an intransitive pro-verb
Do the job, Do the dishes, Do time (= go to prison), Do some work, Do the wash, Do your hair
[It refers to the performance of an activity that is relevant to the object NP, but it does not specify that activity]
DO commonly functions as a PRO-VERB,
substituting for a lexical verb (mainly in
conversation)
It often combines with it, this/that, or so, to form
a transitive pro-verb construction
In BrE conversation after an auxiliary verb, DO as
an intransitive pro-verb provides an alternative to
ellipsis. However, it is more common to use
ellipsis rather than do.
Ex: I didnt do it.
Ex: well, thats why he did it.
Ex: A: No, no signs of him resigning.
B: Well they kicked him out.
A: they should have done, but they wont .
AUXILIARY VERB DO
DO- SUPPORT IN
NEGATIVES AND
INTERROGATIVES
EMPHATIC DO
AUXILIARY DO AS
A PRO-VERB
AUXILIARY DO IN
QUESTION TAGS
DO functions as an auxiliary in
question tags. Ex:
But Fanny looked after you,
didnt she?
This delay solves nothing, does
it?
-----------------
This construction is related to
do-supports: it occurs where
the preceding main verb has no
auxiliary.
Aux DO can act as a pro-verb,
standing in for the whole VP
+ complement. Its used in
(+) and (-) clauses. Ex:
A: He doesnt even know you.
B: He does!
I think his mom wants him to
come back but his dad
doesnt.
-----------------
Here, DO can be considered a
stranded operator.
Emphatic DO occurs as an
auxiliary verb in a clause that is
not negated and is not a question,
to emphasize that the meaning of
the main verb is positive, in
contrast with what one might
expect (and so its stressed in
speech). Ex:
I really did go to see him.
He does have a problem.
---------------
A special use of emphatic DO is in
commands (or
suggestions/invitations):
Oh do shut up!
DO functions as an auxiliary
verb when lexical main verbs
are made negative or used in
interrogatives. This use of DO
is know as do-support and it
does not contribute any
independent meaning. Ex:
He doesnt smoke.
Do you like scallops?
What did you bring for us?
-----------------
In this construction, present or
past tense is marked on the
verb DO, not on the main verb.
DO dummy operator.
As BE behaves as an auxiliary, it does not take emphatic do in
declarative clauses, but in imperative clauses do + be is possible.
The copula BE and other copular verbs
Ex: Youre very stupid.
[The copula BE links the attribute to the subject]
Many copular verbs are also used to locate the subject of the clause in TIME or SPACE,
by an obligatory adverbial of position, duration, or direction that occurs after the copula:
Ex: I was in the kitchen.
Several verbs (like go, grow, come) can function as either a copular verb or a
transitive/intransitive verb, depending on the context:
Ex: Its beginning to go bad for you (copular verb)
Ex: It was when Wharton Horricker and went to Mexico (intransitive verb)
Ex: It makes your teeth and your bones grow strong and healthy (copular verb)
Ex: So you said she started to grow sesame herbs (transitive verb)




COPULAR VERBS are used to associate an attribute with a subject of a clause.
The attribute is usually expressed by the subject predicative following the verb
COPULAR
VERBS
CURRENT
STATE OF
EXISTENCE
SENSORY
PERCEPTION
RESULT
Many verbs can function as copular verbs. They fall into 2 main categories: CURRENT COPULAR
VERBS and RESULT COPULAR VERBS
They have 2 subclasses

Identifies
attributes that
are in continuing
state of existence.
This includes:
be, seem, appear,
keep, remain,
stay
State-of-
existence
Reports sensory
perceptions.
This includes:
look, feel, sound,
smell, taste
Sensory
perception
Ex: I may have appeared
a little short with my
daughter that morning.
Ex: Ooh that feels
good.
They identify an attribute that is the result of a process of change. Ex:
o Shell end up pregnant
o His breathing became less frantic.
o My heart grew sick and couldnt eat.

Other result copular verbs include:
Become Go Grow Prove Come Turn - Turn out - End up - Wind up
Copular verbs differ

Most copular verbs occur with an AdjP as the subject predicative
However, others are strongly associated with other structures (NP or Complement Clause)
Some verbs are limited to one type of complement while others occur with many.


In their meaning
In the complements they take
BE
The copula be the most common verb in English
(Unlike most lexical verbs) Its much more common in Academic prose than in other registers.
Be also occurs with a wide range of complements
Unlike most copular verbs, BE occurs most commonly with a NP as subject predicative, which has 2 functions:
To characterize the subject NP in some way: Ex: My dad was a great guy, too.
Ex: Tomorrow could be a sunny day.
To identify the subject NP: Ex: Thats our black yard
Ex: The kernel is the part of the plant of greatest value.
AdjP are also very common as subject predicatives of BE. The most common of these predicatives express STANCE. In conversation, they
are mostly general evaluative terms: right, good, sure, nice and funny. In most cases, they occur with complements after them:
Ex: That wasnt very nice | It was funny, though.
Academic Prose uses a larger range of predicative adjectives that express more specific evaluations: e.g. important, possible, necessary,
difficult, useful. They generally occur with a complement clause or PrepP:
Ex: It is also important to gain the cooperation of workshop participants.
PrepP are much less common as complements of BE, which are used:
As a subject predicative describing a characteristic of the subject: Ex: Umuofia was in a festival mood.
As an adverbial expressing position or direction: Ex: The houses are in a conservation area
Be sometimes occurs with a complement clause as subject predicative:
Ex: the capital is to be provided by the French government.
Ex: But the danger was that the pound would fall further than planned.
VERB FREQUENCY MOST COMMON COMPLEMENTS EXAMPLES
SEEM Most common
copular verb other
than be
1. To-complement clause
2. Adjectives, especially conveying attitudes, surprise and possibility in fiction
3. Adjectives of likelihood in academic prose, with extraposed that-clauses
4. NP as subject predicative, especially with perceptions that are not
necessarily accurate
5. PrepP expressing an attribute of the subject
APPEAR Less common than
seem
1. To-complement clause
2. Adjectives of likelihood in academic prose and news
REMAIN Most common of the
3 continuations
verbs; particularly
common in academic
prose and news
1. Adjectives often reporting absence of change
2. Typical adjectives: unchanged, constant, intact, motionless, immobile, low,
high, open, closed, controversial, uncertain, unknown, obscure
KEEP Less common than
remain
1. Typical adjectives: alive, awake, quiet, silent, secret, busy, fit, close, warm
2. Subject of keep is usually an animate being
STAY Least common of the
3 continuation verbs
1. Typical adjectives: awake, dry, sober, alive, clear, loyal, healthy
2. Subject of stay is usually human
Other state-of-existence copular verbs
SEEM APPEAR REMAIN KEEP - STAY
VERB FREQUENCY MOST COMMON COMPLEMENTS EXAMPLES
LOOK Very common in fiction;
relatively common in
conversation
1. Often evaluates physical appearance
2. Common adjectives: awful, different, happy, lovely, pale, puzzled, sad, small,
surprised, terrible, tired, well, young
FEEL Very common in fiction;
moderately common in
news and conversation
1. Reports an assessment of physical or mental state of being
2. Common adjectives: ashamed, bad, better, cold, good, guilty, sick, sure, tired,
uncomfortable, uneasy
SOUND Most common in fiction
and conversation
1. Literal use: evaluations of sound perceptions
2. Common adjectives: good, nice, silly, stupid, interesting, awful, angry, sad, strange
3. Additional use: reactions to ideas/suggestions
SMELL Generally rare 1. Reports evaluations of smell perceptions
2. Common adjectives: awful, bad, funny, musty, odd, rotten, terrible, delicious, fresh,
good, lovely, nice
TASTE Rare; occasional
occurrences in
conversation and fiction
1. Reports evaluations of taste perceptions
2. Common adjectives: awful, horrible, nice, wonderful
SENSORY COPULAR VERBS:
Look | feel | sound | smell | taste + adjectival complements
They report positive or negative evaluations
Here, the copular verb identifies the sense (e.g. sight, hearing), while the predicative adjective reports the evaluation.
The general evaluating adjectives nice, good and bad occur commonly as subject predicative with all 5 sensory copular verbs
The verbs are all used to DESCRIBE A PROCESS OF CHANGE.
However, these verbs differ greatly in their:
specific meanings
Collocational preferences
Register distributions
Most common result copular verbs: BECOME | GET | GO
Less common result copular verbs: COME | GROW | PROVE | TURN | TURN OUT|
END UP | WIND UP
BECOME
Its especially common in academic
prose and fiction
Its used to describe the process
involved in changing from one state
to another
In academic prose, it often refers to an
impersonal process of moving from a
state of ignorance or disbelief to one
of knowledge or belief
The adjectives clear and apparent are
most common with this function, but
there are a number of other adjectives
that occur with become: difficult,
evident, important, possible.
In fiction, become usually refers to a
specific person, describing a change in
that persons state of awareness or
state of being.
GET
It is usually used to describe a
person changing to a new state
Get is very common, especially
in conversation and fiction
It has many uses, describing both
physical and mental changes
The adjectives ready and worse
are the most common subject
predicatives with get
Other common adjectives: angry,
bigger, better, bored, cold, dressed
(up), drunk, lost, mad, mixed (up),
old, older, pissed (off), sick, tired,
upset, wet.
Many of them mark some
affective or attitudinal stance
GO
Go is usually used to describe a
change towards an
undesirable state, especially in
conversation and fiction.
It describes changes experienced
by human and other natural
processes
The adjectives crazy, mad and
wrong are the most common
complements of go
Several other adjectives recur:
bad, cold, deaf, funny, limp, quiet,
red, wild


CATENATIVE means chain-like or linking
Ordinary verbs which are followed by non-finite forms of other ordinary verbs are called
CATENATIVE
Ex: The cars began climbing through wooded countryside
Catenative verb Linked ing form (non-finite)
The four non-finite forms which catenative verbs link with are:
non-finite forms + intransitive verbs + transitive verbs + objects
The bare infinitive I dare say Frustration...made his skin prickle
The to- infinitive Vogel had agreed to appear I want you to do something
The ing form He started running Aubrey heard the Mercedes engine retreating
The ed/-en form He became infected with the isolation I want this explained.
The selection of the non-finite form to link up with a catenative verb in a particular context depends on the meaning.
Those ordinary lexical verbs which have a precise meaning always select the same non-finite form
Catenative V +
bare infinitive
Catenative V +
to-infinitive
Catenative V +
-ing
Catenative V +
-en/-ed
Catenative V +
object + bare
infinitive
Catenative V +
object +
to-infinitive
Catenative V +
object + -ing
Catenative V +
object + -en/-ed
Its one of the least patterns, though it familiar from the use of the bare infinitive after
auxiliaries:
o Ex: I dont think (bare inf) so.
o Ex: I will talk (bare inf) to him.
Three common multi-word verbs take the bare infinitive: HAD BETTER | HAVE (GOT) TO |
WOULD RATHER/SOONER
o Ex: I think I had better talk to this Colonel Wei.
o Ex: He had to turn up the trouser legs
These verbs, having no non-finite forms, are not full lexical verbs. Yet they are not auxiliary
verbs, since we do not use them as operators. They are classed as modal idioms. The only
common verb in this pattern are MAKE, LET and HELP.
o Ex: you must make do with him
o Ex: Dont let go
o Ex: Hyde helped save him
We use this pattern to talk about aims, purposes and intentions, which are expresses in the infinitive of
the second verb.
o Ex: I intended to sue for libel
o Ex: they had chosen deliberately to ignore him
The forward-looking verbs in this group include:

These verbs may take progressive, passive and perfect infinitives:
o Ex: He did not seen to be apologising
o Ex: Zimmermann will have to be exposed
o Ex: Zimmermann appeared to have lost interest
A small group also appear in a related pattern with introductory it. This category includes appear, happen,
seem and turn out:
o Ex: The stars seemed to drip light. It seemed that the stars dripped light.
WATCH OUT! the negative form of this pattern: making the main verb negative is not the same as making
the non-finite negative. Changing the scope of negation alters the sentence meaning:
EX: She hasnt decided to leave him vs. She has decided not to leave him


Agree, aim, arrange, claim, consent, decide, decline, demand, deserve, fail, hesitate, hope, long, manage,
offer, prepare, pretend, promise, refuse, struggle, swear, threaten, volunteer
(She may or may not stay) (She will stay)
The ing form often carries the meaning of ONGOING ACTIVITY:
Ex: Lin took her arm and they began walking.
(the action walking continues after the action of the main verb began)
Ex: He stopped moving.
(the action moving takes place before that of the main verb stopped)
Other starting and stopping verbs are:

Emotive verbs also take the ing form:


Ex: Zimmermann disliked being followed.
The verbs: cant bear , cant stand, not fancy and not mind have negative bias so we dont use them in affirmative sentences.
Theyre non-assertive


Several ing forms like swimming, dancing, walking, etc, are rather like non-count-nouns. They can follow the definite article
and take an adjectival modifier. They commonly follow come and go: ex.: Lets go dancing. (see guidelines page 40)

Examples of
starting and
stopping verbs
begin cease commence carry on continue quit resume start - stop -ing
cant bear detest dislike dread enjoy not fancy hate like loathe love not mind regret resent cant stand -ing
Admit avoid confess to deny deserve escape forget cant help imagine
need permit recommend remember require save try - want
In this limited pattern, the verb TO GET is followed by the en form:
Ex: Dont get lost, Schiller added.

We commonly (and informally) speak of getting caught/ dressed/ drunk/
found out, etc.
A common application of this pattern is with VERBS OF PERCEPTION. Ex.





I saw her cross the road I saw her crossing the road
VERBS OF PERCEPTION: feel, hear, notice, observe, perceive, see, smell, watch


Finally, when we use verbs of perception metaphorically, we must use a that- clause:
EX. Buckholz felt (that) he had at last learned the truth.
He saw Mengs mouth fall open. || He felt his stomach revolt
He dimly heard the door open || Schiller watched Hyde move to the Land Rover

VERBS OF PERCEPTION + O + BARE INFINITIVE = describe a single, complete action
VERBS OF PERCEPTIONS + O + -ING= describe ongoing, incomplete action
We use passive forms with FEEL, HEAR, OBSERVE and SEE, but ONLY with the
to-infinitive: ex: She was seen to cross the road
Pattern widely used by with verbs concerned with LETTING OR MAKING PEOPLE DO THINGS SUASION. So the objects are
usually ANIMATE: Ex. The politicians persuade people to vote for them in the elections

Verbs in this group include:



Most verbs can also be used in the passive , still with the suasive meaning: Ex: People can be persuaded to say....

Another group of verbs following this pattern are MENTAL-STATE VERBS (centring thoughts and opinions):

Ex: the man had not expected him to turn back.
(All of these verbs also pattern with that- clauses)
A number of EMOTIVE VERBS like love and hate, which can be followed by ing, also pattern with the to- infinitive, both with
and without an object, i.e., I wanted to negotiate or I want you to do sth
Verbs about likes and wishes +the to-infinitive refer to the wishes of the subject about its own future. Ex: I wish to go to the US
Verbs about likes and wishes + an object refer to wishes about the action of sb else. Ex: He wished the truth to reach Louvain.
EMOTIVE VERBS

Advise allow ask assist bribe cause challenge command compel depend on - direct drive empower enable encourage forbid
force get impel implore instruct invite lead leave order permit persuade rely on remind request teach tell - warn
Assume believe consider discover expect fancy feel find imagine judge know observe prove report reveal show
suppose think - understand
Ask beg choose dare express hate help help intend like love- mean prefer need require- want - wish
VERBS OF PERCEPTION take this pattern as well as the object + bare infinitive
Ex: He heard the car engine starting
Perception verbs include:

Certain MENTAL-STATE VERBS of assumption and opinion may also select object + -ing:
Ex: Aubrey found the impression unnerving.
Mental-state verbs include:

A small group of verbs use the pattern in fixed idiomatic phrases:


Feel hear notice observe - perceive see smell - watch
Consider discover excuse find forgive pardon picture - show
To catch sb napping To get sb going
To keep sb waiting To leave sb standing
To send sth flying To send sb packing
This pattern has a passive implication:
Ex: they want silence kept (-en) (or they want silence to be kept)
BUT they want us to keep (to-inf) silence.
Some VERBS OF PERCEPTION follow this pattern, particularly FEEL, HEAR, and SEE:
Ex: They walked on, Lin feeling himself drawn into Marys chilly, ice-capped dreams.
MENTAL-STATE VERBS are used with object + -en:
Ex: The Americans want the Treaty stopped
Mental-state verbs in this use include:
Ex: he kept his eyes closed | He discovered himself hurled into an adult, irrecoverable world
In the catenative patterns with OBJECTS we need to use REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS when the subject of both
verbs is the same (to avoid ambiguity)
Ex: he knew himself to be acting irrationally
A subtle distinction often occurs when we use have/get + O + -en: have/get have active meaning when the
outcome is desirable. Otherwise, they have passive meaning:
Ex: She had the house painted vs. He got the car smashed
Discover fancy find imagine keep leave make report - show


Ex: Davenhill said, The Americans want the Treaty stopped. We may may want it to proceed.
We usually choose the infinitive pattern when referring to a single action or a positive choice, with a future
meaning: Ex: Youd still like to go in [likenow | go inlater]
We select the ing pattern to refer to an ongoing action or a general activity; the ing form has a contrasting
backward-looking sense: Ex: He doesnt like Zimmermann dropping behind [doesntnow|dropping
behindearlier]
WANT is one of a small group of verbs we use with ing when we wish to give a passive meaning to the 2
nd

verb: Ex: The house want/needs/requires/deserves cleaning. The house want/needs/requires/deserves to be
cleaned.
We also use WANT, NEED and REQUIRE as mental-state verbs + Object + both ing and en forms, with
equally passive meaning: Ex: We want/need/require the house cleaned. We want/need/require the
house cleaning
Some
verbs of
liking
To-inf
Object + -ing
-ing
Ex. I told him youd still like to go in
Ex. He doesnt like Zimmermann dropping behind
Ex. She wont like being interrupted.
Want + object + -en
Want+ object+ to-infinitive
VERBS OF PERCEPTION (feel, hear, notice, observe, perceive, see, smell, watch, etc.) can be used with BOTH
object + bare infinitive and object + -ing. Ex:
o The doctor saw Lin... approach him
o Lim watched him pass
o Aubrey saw the city retreating
o Lin watched him moving away.
We selected BARE INFINITIVE for a single complete action: Aubrey felt the heat assail him.
BUT, we use the ING FORM to refer to an action in progress: Aubrey felt his clothes beginning to stick to him.
We do not always have a free choice after verbs of perception!
DYNAMIC VERBS may describe a single event (e.g. To blink), an ongoing one (e.g. To breathe), or a repetitive one
(e.g. To hammer)
We are most likely to choose the bare infinitive for EVENT VERBS and ing for those with REPETITIVE MEANING.
Ex: I heard the trip over the doormat (fall, a single event)
Ex: I heard her tripping down the corridor (dancing, a repetitive action)
Begin/start verbs or ASPECTUAL VERBS (which also includes cease, commence and continue) are followed by
both the to-ing and the ing (with a little difference in marring.: ex: they began walking vs They began to stroll.
In such cases theres little difference in meaning: (so the choice is open).
HOWEVER WHEN THE 2
ND
VERB in in a STATIVE USE, the to-infinitive is preferred to ing after begin/start verbs. Ex:
He continued to recognise the Russian. He continued recognising the Russian.
STOP is no a member of the group, although the cease is.
He cased having breakfast
We ceased to have breakdfast
Stopped having breakfast.
We use the to-inf after verbs like to stop, to expressed purpose.
BEGIN + -ing vs. BEGIN + to-infinitive
REMEMBER and FORGET can precede both (to-inf and ing) but with difference in meaning. When thinking of past
actions we use ing form: Ex: David remembered hearing Russian. When thinking ahead to a future action, we use to-
infinitive: Ex: I nearly forgot to tell you.
We use REGRET in the same way, though with the forward-looking sense with the to-infinitive we limit this verbs
use to reporting verbs: Ex: I regret to say/report/announce that your flight has been cancelled.
TRY + to-inf has the infinitives common meanings of purpose and futurity: Ex: Theyre trying to tear it all down.
TRY + -ing has the meaning of more general activity, meaning experimentation: Ex: Try talking to him.

We use the to-inf after verbs like to stop, to expressed purpose.
Deliberate action
Certain VERBS OF SUASION like advise, allow, encourage, forbid, permit, recommend
and urge take OBJECT + TO-INFINITIVE when an object intervenes:
Ex: I cannot permit Zimmerman to be judged guilty. (indicates future action)
Without an object, the same verbs take the ing pattern and denote a general activity:
Ex: wide enough to permit overtaking.
Other verbs that can take both patterns but with a difference in meaning:


Verb + -Ing form + To Infinitive
GO ON
= continue
Ex: They went on playing despite the bad weather
=change to another action
Ex: After opening the hospital the Prince went on to meet the staff
MEAN
= involves or will result in
Ex: this new job means living abroad
= intend to do sth
Ex: the builders mean to finish by Friday
STOP
= finish an action
They stopped making fax machines about ten years ago
= finish one action in order to do another one
Ex: we stopped to get petrol
Some verbs can be followed by an ing form or an infinitive, with no difference in meaning:
Ex: I cant stand to see/seeing animals in pain.


We usually avoid putting 2 infinitives or 2 ing forms together!
He wanted to start to take lessons. He wanted to start taking lessons.
We use to + infinitive after WOULD LIKE, WOULD LOVE and WOULD HATE
When we get there I would like taking a nap. When we get there I would like taking a nap
When LIKE means think something is a good idea, we ONLY use the INFINITIVE. Compare:
Ex: I like going/ to go to the gym. Its so relaxing (= I enjoy visiting it)
Ex: Because of my weight problem I like to go to the gm at least twice a week (= I think this is a
good idea)
VERB + -ING FORM OR INFINITIVE:
Attempt, begin, bother, cant bear, cant stand, cease, continue, deserve, fear, hate, intend, like
(=enjoy), love, prefer, start
Verbs followed by ing forms and infinitives (* = can take an object)







Underlined verbs: with these verbs we use for before the object + infinitive: Ex: We spent ages
waiting them to arrive. We spent ages waiting for them to arrive.
Verbs in bold: in BrE we can use deserve+ -ing when it has a passive meaning: the naughty child
deserves smacking (= deserves to be smacked)
Verb + -ing form Verb + infinitive
Admit, appreciate*, avoid*, burst out, cant help*,
consider, contemplate, defer, delay, deny, detest*,
dislike*, endure* escape, excuse*, face*, fancy*, feel
like, finish, give up, imagine*, involve*, justify*, keep
(on), leave off, mention*, mind*, miss*, postpone,
practise, prevent*, put off, put sb off, recall*,
recommend, resent*, resist*, risk*, save, suggest,
tolerate*, understand*
Afford, agree, aim, appear, arrange, ask*, attempt,
beg*, campaign, care, choose*, consent, dare*, decide,
demand, deserve, expect*, fail, fight, forget,
guarantee, happen, help*, hesitate, hope, intend*,
long, manage, need*, neglect, offer, pause, plan,
prepare, pretend, promise, propose, prove, refuse,
seem, swear, tend, threaten, trouble*, try, undertake,
vow, wait, want*, wish*, yearn
The verbs: ADVISE, FOLLOW, FORBID and PERMIT are followed by an ing form then
they have NO OBJECT, but an infinitive when thjey have an OBJECT:
The doctor advised taking a course of antibiotics.
The doctor advised him taking a course of antibiotics
The doctor advised him to take a course of antibiotics

Certain verbs (particularly sense verbs) are only followed by the ing when they
have an object: They discovered him doing sth.

Some verbs are followed by the infinitive only when they have an object: They
forced us to open it

V + O + to-inf: advise, allow, cause, command, compel, encourage, forbid, force, get, instruct, invite, leave,
oblige, order, permit, persuade, recommend, remind, request, teach, tell, tempt, urge, warn
V + O + ing: catch, discover, feel, find, hear, leave, notice, observe, see, spot, watch