BMA4723 Vehicle Dynamics

BMA4723 Vehicle Dynamics
By
Dr. Gan Leong Ming
Course Outcomes
CO1: Solve the basic vehicle motion problems and acceleration
performance for different cases

CO2: Define and evaluate the performance characteristics of the
braking system.

CO3: Evaluate the aerodynamics, drag and rolling resistance of the tire

CO4: Define the ride characteristics of the road vehicles and solve the
problems for different cornering scenario

CO5: Define the characteristics of various suspension system designs
and solve the problems of steering system
Course Outline
Chapter 1 : Fundamental of Vehicle Dynamics
Chapter 2 : Acceleration Performance
Chapter 3 : Braking Performance
Chapter 4 : Road Loads and Tires
Chapter 5 : Ride
Chapter 6 : Steady-state Cornering
Chapter 7 : Suspensions
Chapter 8 : The Steering Systems
Assessment Methods
a. Mid Semester Test : 30%
c. Cooperative Learning : 30%
d. Final Examination : 40%
Total : 100%
Chapter 1 : Fundamental of Vehicle
Dynamics
By
Dr. Gan Leong Ming
In the period of early 1900s
There had been sporadic attempts to make the
vehicle ride decently, but little had been done. The
rear passengers still functional as ballast, stuck out
behind the rear wheels. Steering was frequently
unstable and the front axle with front brakes made
shimmy almost inevitable. The engineers had made
all the parts function excellently, but when put
together the whole was seldom satisfactory.

Pick from Reminiscenes of Maurice Olley
Vehicle Dynamics
Broadest sense encompasses
all form of conveyance ships,
airplanes, trains, rubber-tired
vehicles

Principles are diverse and
extensive
Vehicle Dynamics
Performance of the vehicle
- The motions accomplished in accelerating,
braking, cornering and ride
- A response to forces imposed
- Study of how and why the forces are
produced
- Handling and directional changing
performance
Vehicle Dynamics
Two level of understanding:
- Empirical : derives from trial and error by
which one learns which factors influence
vehicle performance often lead to failure
- Analytical : describe the mechanics of
interest based on the known laws of
physics so that the analytical model can be
established predictive capability
Introductory Terminology
General dimensions/Reference
dimensions
Wheel Base
Wheel Track
Sprung/Unsprung weight
Curb/Lumped weight
Center of gravity height
Weight distribution
Axis System
Wheel Track
Front track
The linear dimension between the rotational planes of the front wheels
on a vehicle.

Rear track
The linear dimension between the rotational planes of the rear wheels
on a vehicle.

Production vehicles may use either equal, or dissimilar dimensions for
front and rear track. Rear track may be greater than, equal to, or less
than front track.

Wheel track, with cg height, affects weight transfer during
cornering and influences the roll-over potential.

Wheel track must be appropriate to end up with a reasonable
weight transfer at the limits of cornering.
Wheel Base
The linear dimension between the front
and rear wheels on each side.
Production vehicles, for obvious
reasons, use square vehicles (same L
& R dimension)

The linear dimension between the front and
rear axle centerlines.

Wheel base affects weight transfer during
acceleration and braking.
Curb/Lumped Weight
Curb/Lumped weight
The weight of the vehicle, fueled and prepared with all
liquids and equipment w/o passengers.

The vehicle as weighed.

Always consider in design the limits of vehicle weight and
analyze at curb wt. and fully laden.

For acceleration, braking, and most tuning analysis
Sprung/Unsprung Weight
Sprung weight
The vehicle masses that are supported by the vehicle
springs. Sprung weight moves indirectly with the road
surface. Body, passengers, parts of drive train, and
parts of suspension.

Unsprung weight
The vehicle masses that are directly driven by tire input
forces. Unsprung weight moves directly with the road
surface. Wheels, tires, brakes, some suspension etc.

For ride analysis
Center of gravity
Center of Gravity

The theoretical point in the X, Y, Z planes where all
the mass could be located and the weight
distribution of the vehicle would remain
unchanged.

Cg height affects weight transfer during braking,
acceleration and cornering. 1st approximation
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
L
h
g
a
w Wt
cg
long
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
t
h
g
a
w Wt
cg
lat
Weight Distribution
The distribution of weight the vehicle weight in the X-
Y plane.

Weight front, % W
f
Weight rear, % W
r

Weight left, % W
l
Weight right, % W
rt

Tractive forces during acceleration are a function of
% weight on the drive wheels during acceleration
(including weight transfer)

Tractive forces required at each axle set during
braking are affected by static weight and weight
transfer.

Brake design choices may be in part affected by
brake requirements of each axle.
SAE Vehicle Axis System

Euler Angles
Relate the vehicle fixed coordination system to the earth
fixed coordination system.

Determined by a sequence of three angular rotations.

Yaw [around z axis]
Pitch [around y axis]
Roll [around x axis]

momentum angular is h
torque applied net is g
h
dt
d
g
Law Eulers
=
Forces : Newtons Second Law
Translational systems

Rotational systems
direction x in the on accelerati is a
body the of mass is M
direction x in the force is F
Ma F
x
x
x x
=
momentum linear is P
P
dt
d
v
dt
d
M F
x
= =
axis about x on accelerati is
axis about x inertia of moment is I
axis x about the torque is T
I T
x
xx
x
x xx x
- =
Dynamics Axle Loads
a
h
A
D
O
L
b
c
f
W
r
W
h
d
h
h
hx
R
hz
R
h
x
a W/g
W
O sin W
O cos W
Center of gravity,
CG
Drag force
Towing
force
Traction Force
Rolling Resistance
xr
F
xf
F
xf
R
xr
R
Hitch point
Road
gradient
Arbitrary forces acting on a vehicle
A
B
Motion Analysis
By the SAE convention, a clockwise torque about A
is positive,
0 cos c W - sin h W d R h R h a
g
W
h D L W
h hz h hx x a A f
= O O + + + + +
So,
/L ) sin h W h D - h a
g
W
d R - h R cos c (W W
a A x h hz h hx f
O O =
/L ) sin h W h D h a
g
W
) L (d R - h R cos b (W W
a A x h hz h hx r
O + + + + + O =
and
Motion Analysis : Static Loads on Level ground
For road gradient = 0
L
b
W W
L
c
W W
rs
fs
=
=
Motion Analysis : Low Speed Acceleration
For road gradient = 0
No Drag force
No trailer hitch forces
L
h
g
a
W W
L
h
g
a
L
b
W W
L
h
g
a
W W
L
h
g
a
L
c
W W
x
rs
x
r
x
fs
x
f
+ =
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
Motion Analysis : Loads on Grades
Grade defined as the rise over the run
Grade = Tan (grade angle)
O + =
|
.
|
\
|
O + =
O =
|
.
|
\
|
O =
L
h
W W
L
h
L
b
W W
L
h
W W
L
h
L
c
W W
rs r
fs f
Motion Analysis
The curb weight of a Continental 4 door
Sedan without passengers or cargo are 1049
kg on the front axle and 599.6 kg on the rear.
The wheel base, L is 2768.6 mm. Determine
the location of the cg to the front wheel and
rear wheel.
Motion Analysis
A Taurus GL sedan with 3.0L engine accelerates
from a standing start up a 6 percent grade at an
acceleration of 1,83ft/s
2
. Find the load distribution
on the axles at this condition.
Relevant Data :

Curb weight (front) = 884 kg
Curb weight (rear ) = 497.6 kg
Wheel base, L = 2692.4 mm
Passenger weight = 90 kg
Passenger weight distribution:
Front 49% Rear 51%
CG height, h = 508 mm
Question
A 2.4L engine capacity passenger car has total
curb weight of 1.45 ton and weight distribution of
58/42. When a driver and a co-driver seat on the
car, each of their 85kg body mass will serve
another 60/40 weight distribution. Find the static
weight distribution of the car at this condition and
the location of the cg. The car wheelbase is
2.84m. Take the c.g. height as 40% of
wheelbase.

When the car accelerate at 0.4g at a grade of
-4.5 percent, what is the weight distribution at
each wheel.

Compare to static condition, how much is the cg
shift refer to front wheel.
Chapter 2 : Acceleration Performance
By
Dr. Gan Leong Ming
Limit of the Longitudinal Acceleration
Engine power for high speed
Traction limit for low speed

Depend on vehicle speed
Power Limited Acceleration
Engine
- Source of power
- Characterized by torque and power curve
2000
4000 6000 RPM
Power
Torque
Specific fuel consumption
1000
2000 3000
RPM
Specific fuel consumption
Torque
Power
Gasoline engine Diesel engine
Difference between Gasoline and Diesel Engine
Gasoline Engine

- govern by the
induction system

- Most efficient at
0.4ib/hp-hr sfc

Diesel Engine

- Govern by the fuel
injection system

- Most efficient at
0.2ib/hp-hr sfc

Relationship between power, torque and horsepower
5252 / Speed) x (Torque Horsepower
Speed x Torque Power
=
=
HP x 0.746 (kW) Power =
radius x Force (Nm) Torque =
From Newtons Second Law:
wheels drive at the force Tractive F
direction forward in the on Accelerati a
W/g vehicle the of Mass M
where
F a M
x
x
x x
=
=
= =
=
Since the drive power = Tractive force x forward speed
(kg) vehicle the of weight W
(W) power Engine P
(m/s) speed Forward V
) m/s 9.81 (g constant nal Gravitatio g
where
V
P
W
g
F
M
1
a
2
x x
=
=
=
= =
= =
V
1
a
x
o It shown that
acceleration
capability
decrease with
increasing speed
Power Train The Primary Elements
? Drivetrain To Torque Actual Torque Output Engine >
Engine
Transmission Driveshaft
Differential
Axle shaft
c
T
d
T
a
T
e
T
Engine
Torque
Clutch
Torque
Driveshaft
Torque
Axle
Torque
Torque to Clutch
on accelerati rotational Engine
inertia rotational Engine I
data) dynamic (from speed given a at torque Engine T
ion) transmiss the (input to clutch at the Torque T
where
I - T T
e
e
e
c
e e e c
=
=
=
=
=
o
o
Torque to Driveshaft
side) engine the from seen (as ion transmiss the of inertia Rotational I
ion transmiss the of ratio Numerical N
driveshaft the output to Torque T
where
N ) I - T ( T
t
t
d
t e t c d
=
=
=
= o
Torque on the axles
drive final the of ratio Numerical N
driveshaft the of on accelerati Rotational
driveshaft the of inertia Rotational I
wheels the of on accelerati Rotational
shafts axles and wheels the of inertia Rotational I
wheels the of Radius r
ground at the force Tractive F
axles on the Torque T
where
N ) I - T ( I r F T
f
d
d
w
w
x
a
f d d d w w x a
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
= + =
o
o
o
Rotational Acceleration
w f t d t e
w f d
N N N
and
N
= =
=
Solving all the equations,
( ) { }
drive final and ion transmiss of ratio Combined N
where
r
a
I N I N I I
r
N T
F
tf
2
x
w
2
f d
2
tf t e
tf e
x
=
+ + + =
Continue
( ) { }
drive final and ion transmiss of efficiency Combined
where
r
a
I N I N I I
r
N T
F
losses, viscous and mechanical to due ncies ineffiecie the include By
tf
2
x
w
2
f d
2
tf t e
tf e
x
=
+ + + =
q
q
tf
( ) { }
2
x
w
2
f d
2
tf t e
tf e
x
r
a
I N I N I I
r
N T
F + + + =
tf
q
Steady-state tractive force
available at the ground to
overcome the road load forces,
to accelerate, to climb
loss of tractive force due to
inertia of the engine and driveline
components
Continue
O = = Wsin - R - D - R - F a W/g Ma
follow as is on accelerati the of expression the study, previous From
hx A x x x x
F
x
includes the engine torque and rotational inertia terms
Lumped the rotational inertias in with the mass of the vehicle,
components rotating the of mass Equivalent M
where
Wsin - R - D - R -
r
N T
a
g
) W (W
)a M (M
r
hx A x
tf tf e
x
r
x r
=
O =
+
= +
q
Continue
gear opertaing on the depend , factor" mass "
M
M M
and
mass" effective " M M
r
r
=
+
= +
2
tf
r
0.0025N 0.04 1
M
M M
Factor Mass
as n often take is number tive representa A
+ + =
+
=
Analysis
1
st
gear
2
nd
gear
3
rd
gear
4
th
gear
Speed
T
r
a
c
t
i
v
e

f
o
r
c
e

Constant Engine Power
Maximum power of the engine, which is
the upper limit of tractive effort available
Deficiencies of the transmission
in providing maximum
acceleration performance
Tractive effort-speed characteristics for a manual transmission
Tractive Effort Relationships
Automatic Transmission
Provide more closely matching the ideal because of the torque converter
on the input
- At zero output speed (speed ratio=0), the output torque
will be several times that of the input
- Providing good off-the-line acceleration performance
E
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
c
y

(
%
)

Output/Input Speed Ratio
O
u
t
p
u
t
/
I
n
p
u
t

T
o
r
q
u
e

R
a
t
i
o

Characteristics of a typical torque converter
1
st
gear for starting
2
nd
gear for passing
3
rd
gear for passing
4
th
gear for fuel economy
20%
10%
0%
Grade
Tractive effort-speed characteristics for a manual transmission
Speed
T
r
a
c
t
i
v
e

f
o
r
c
e

Zero speed, high tractive force
Tractive force available to
accelerate the vehicle
Maximum speed that can be
sustained in that gear
Selection of Gear Ratios
Best gear ratios usually fall close to a geometric progression, in which
the ratios change by a constant percentage from gear to gear
constant
4
3
3
2
2
1
= = =
E
n
g
i
n
e

s
p
e
e
d

Road speed
1
1
st
gear 2
nd
gear 3
rd
gear 4
th
gear
Selection of Gear Ratios
Actual gear ratios selection also reflect the realities
of the pressures for fuel economy and emissions.
E
n
g
i
n
e

s
p
e
e
d

Road speed
1
st
gear 2
nd
gear 3
rd
gear 4
th
gear 5
th
gear
Problem
We are given the following information about the engine and drivetrain components for a
passenger car :

Engine inertia 0.0904kgm
2

RPM/Torque (Nm) 800/162.8 1200/179.0 1600/196.7 2000/217.0 2400/237.4 2800/245.5
3200/257.7 3600/268.5 4000/271.3 4400/272.6 4800/268.5 5200/244.1

Transmission Data Gear 1 2 3 4 5
Inertia (kgm
2
) 0.1469 0.1017 0.091 0.0565 0.0339
Ratios 4.28 2.79 1.83 1.36 1.00
Efficiencies 0.966 0.967 0.972 0.973 0.970

Final drive inertia 0.1356kgm
2
Ratio 2.92
Efficiency 0.99

Wheel inerties Drive 1.243kgm
2
Non-drive 1.243kgm
2

Wheel size 497.7 rev/km 2.0 m circumference 31.98 cm radius

a. Calculate the effective inertia of the drive-train components in first gear
b. Calculate the maximum tractive effort and corresponding road speed in first and fifth gears
of the car described above when inertial losses are neglected.
Traction Limited Acceleration
Limited by the coefficient of friction between the tire and road. Therefore,
wheels drive on Weight W
friction of t coefficien Peak
where
W F
x
=
=
=
** The weight on a drive wheel then depends on the (Static load + Dynamic load)
due to acceleration, and on any transverse shift of load due to drive torque.
Transverse Weight Shift
- Due to drive torque
- Occurs on all solid drive axles (front/rear)

s
T
d
T
t
y
r
W
2
W
+
y
r
W
2
W
** Torque delivered to wheels will be limited by the traction limit on the most
lightly loaded wheel
0
Writing NSL at point O
ratio drive Final N
radius Tire r
s rear wheel two the from force drive Total F
where
r/N F T
and
)/t T - (T W
or
0 T T )t/2 W /2 W W /2 (W T
f
x
f x d
s d y
d s y r y r 0
=
=
=
=
=
= + + + =
Roll Torque from the Suspension

T
s
=?
- Roll torque is caused by the front and rear suspension
- According to Hookes Law of the chassis,
r f
r sr
f sf
K K K
K T
K T
+ =
=
=
stiffness roll Total K
stiffness roll suspension Rear K
stiffness roll suspension Front K
suspension rear on the torque Roll T
suspension front on the torque Roll T
where
r
f
sr
sf
=
=
=
=
=
For Low Speed Acceleration
L
h
g
a
W W
L
h
g
a
L
b
W W
L
h
g
a
W W
L
h
g
a
L
c
W W
x
rs
x
r
x
fs
x
f
+ =
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
Traction Limits Rear Wheel Drive
Based on the relationship and assumptions,
Maximum tractive force for solid rear axle with a
non-locking differential:
f
f
max
x
K
K
t N
r 2
L
h
- 1
L
Wb
+
=
Dynamic Load
transfer
Lateral load transfer
for lower traction
force limited wheel
Static load
distribution
cof of the driving wheel
Additional Traction limits
When no lateral load transfer, both driving wheels has
the same traction force limit, where
L
h
- 1
L
Wb
K
K
t N
r 2
L
h
- 1
L
Wb
f
f
max x
=
+
=
0
True for independent rear suspension because the
driveline torque reaction is picked up by the chassis-
mounted differential
Traction Limits Front Wheel Drive
For the solid front drive axle with non-locking differential,
r
f
max
x
K
K
t N
r 2
L
h
1
L
Wc
+ +
=
For solid front drive axle with locking differential, or independent
front drive axle,
L
h
1
L
Wc
F
max
x
+
=
Problems
Find the traction-limited acceleration for the rear-drive
passenger car with and without a locking differential on a
surface of moderate friction level. The information that will be
needed is as follows:
Weights Front 952 kg Rear 839 kg Total 1791 kg
CG height 53.34 cm Wheelbase 274.3 cm
Coefficient of friction 0.62 Wheel track 149.86 cm
Final drive ratio 2.90 Tire size R13/200/65
Roll Stiffness Front 1559.7 Nm/deg Rear 379.8 Nm/deg

Problems
Find the traction-limited performance of a front-
wheel-drive vehicle under the same road conditions
as the problem above. The essential data are:
Weights Front 885 kg Rear 522 kg Total 1407 kg
CG height 48.26 cm Wheelbase 266.7 cm
Coefficient of friction 0.62 wheel track 152.4 cm
Final drive ratio 3.70 Tire size 12.59 in
Roll Stiffness Front 1288.5 Nm/deg Rear 840.9 Nm/deg

Nissan Sentra Engine Curve
http://www.gminsidenews.com/for
ums/f74/regal-gs-begins-
production-next-april-
92021/index16.html
Chapter 3 : Braking Performance
By
Dr. Gan Leong Ming
General Equations
Based on the NSL written for x direction:
grade Uphill
drag c Aerodynami D
force braking axle Rear F
force braking axle Front F
on decelerati Linear a - D
on accelerati nal Gravitatio g
weight Vehicle W
where
Wsin - D - F - -F D
g
W
- Ma
A
xr
xf
x x
A xr xf x x
= O
=
=
=
= =
=
=
O = =
Arise from the torque of the brakes
along with rolling resistance effects,
bearing friction, and driveline drags
Constant Deceleration
velocity Forward V
vehicle on the forces on decelerati al longitudin all of total The F
where
dt
dV
M
F
D
xt
xt
x
=
=
= =
Based on the previous equation:
By integrate the equation from initial velocity V
0
to final velocity V
f`
change velocity for the Time t
where
t
M
F
V V
dt
M
F
dV
s
s
xt
f 0
t
0
xt
V
V
s f
0
=
=
=
} }
Since V = dx/dt,

on decelerati the during traveled Distance X
where
X
M
F
2
V V
xt
2
f
2
0
=
=
In the case where the deceleration is a full stop, then V
f
= zero,
x
0
xt
0
s
x
2
0
xt
2
0
D
V
M
F
V
t
is stop to time the and
2D
V
M
F
2
V
SD Distance, Stopping
= =
= =
0 s
2
0
V t
V SD
o
o
Deceleration with Wind Resistance
The total braking force is the summation of total brake force from the
axles and the drag force from the wind resistance
factor drag c Aerodynami C
s rear wheel and front of force brake Total F
where
CV F F
b
2
b x
=
=
+ =
Therefore
(
+
=
+
=
} }
b
2
0 b
0
V
2
b
SD
0
F
CV F
ln
2C
M
SD
CV F
VdV
M dx
0
Energy/Power Absorption
The energy absorbed by braking system is the kinetic energy
of motion for the vehicle, hence
( )
2
f
2
0
V V
2
M
Energy =
The power dissipation is greatest at the beginning of the stop
when the speed is highest, thus
s
2
0
t
V
2
M
Power =
Braking Forces
May arise from a number of sources:

Brakes system
Rolling Resistance
Aerodynamic Drag
Driveline Drag
Grade
Braking Forces Rolling Resistance
Always opposes vehicle motion, aids the brakes
t Coefficien Resistance Rolling f
where
W f ) W (W f R R
r
r r f r xr xf
=
= + = +
** Normally Rolling resistance forces equivalent to about 0.01g deceleration
Braking Forces Aerodynamic Drag
Depend on the dynamic pressure
Proportional to square of the speed

At low speeds, it is negligible

At normal highway speeds,

~ Aerodynamic drag force equivalent to about
0.03g
Braking Forces Driveline Drag
Due to engine, transmission and final drive drag
and inertia effects
As effective mass
Drag arises from bearing and gear friction in the
transmission and differential, and engine braking
Engine braking is equivalent to motoring
torque (internal friction + air pumping loss)
Disappear when the engine at high speed/over-
revs (valves floating)
For manual transmission, engine braking is
multiplied by gear ratio selected

For automatic transmission, torque
converter is designed for forward power
transmission, which inefficient for reverse
direction

Driveline drag depends on the rate of
deceleration

Fast slowing than driveline : drive wheels
will pick up extra load of decelerating driveline
as well

Low level decelerations : driveline drag
sufficient to decelerate the rotating driveline,
which contribute braking effort to drive wheels

Braking Forces Grade
Contribute directly to the braking effort
Either positive sense (uphill) or negative (downhill)
Additional force on the vehicle arising from grade,
Wsin R
g
=
( )
O ~ =
= ~
W Wsin R
Rise/run Grade radians
g
For small angles typical of most grades:
**A grade of 4% (0.04) will be equivalent to a deceleration of +/- 0.04g
Brakes
- Two types Drum Brake and Disc Brake
Design of Drum brake (left) and Disc brake (right)
Brakes - Comparison
Drum brake has high brake factor and easy
incorporation of parking brake features

May not be as consistent in torque
performance as disc brakes

Lower brake factors of disc brakes require
higher actuation effort + development of
integral parking brake features
Brake Factor
Mechanical advantage to minimise the actuation effort
required
For drum brake,
a
P
B
N
B
N
A
N
A
N
e
n
m
A
B
Brake factor
pivot the to force normal the from distance lar Perpendicu m
pivot to force friction lining from distance lar Perpendicu n
drum and A lining between force Normal N
pivot to force actuation from distance lar Perpendicu e
where
0 mN - N n eP M
: A shoe for point pivot about the moments Taking
A
A A a p
=
=
=
=
= + =

Brake factor

) n m (
e
P
F
and
) n m (
e
P
F
and
N F and N F
: is shoe brake each at force friction The
a
B
a
A
B B A A
+
=
=
= =
Brake Factor
Leading Shoe (A)
Moment produced to rotate against the drum
Increase the friction force
Self-servo action yields mechanical advantage/brake factor

Brake Lock when n = m and brake factor =

Trailing Shoe (B)
Friction force acts to reduce the application force
Lower brake factor
Require higher application force

changes due to heating, wear which cause brake to behave more
erratically

Disc brake
less change in
Better torque consistency
Require more actuation effort
Brake Factor
Drum Brake
Velocity
effect
Temperature
effect
Time
Time
T
o
r
q
u
e

T
o
r
q
u
e

Disc Brake
T 1/V
Less variation
e) Temperatur Velocity, , (P f T
a b
=
Variation between Drum and Disc brake cause difficulty to maintain proper
balance between front and rear braking effort during maximum effort stop
Less consistent deceleration cause longer stopping time
Brake Factor
( )
wheels of on decelerati Rotational
) components drive (and wheels of inertia Rotational I
tires the of radius Rolling r
where
r
I - T
F
: force braking generate to acts brake by produced Torque
w
w
w w b
b
=
=
=
=
o
o
By lumped in the inertia with the vehicle mass for convenience in calculation:
r
T
F
b
b
=
** brake force can only be increase to the limit of
the frictional coupling between the tire and road**
Tire-Road Friction for maximum brake force
Hysteresis
-Arise from the
intermolecular bonds
between rubber and the
aggregate in the road
surface
-Large in dry roads,
reduce in wet road (loss
of friction)
-Represent energy loss
in the rubber as it
deforms when sliding
over the aggregate in the
road
-Not affected by water on
the road surface
-Better wet traction with
high hysteresis rubber in
the tread
Depend on some small amount of slip (cause deform) occurring at the tire-road interface
Tire Road Friction
c) (radian/se speed rotational Tire
velocity forward Vehicle V
where
V
r - V
Slip
=
=
=
e
e
Wheel slip (%)
B
r
a
k
i
n
g

c
o
e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
t

(
B
r
a
k
e

f
o
r
c
e
/
v
e
r
t
i
c
a
l

l
o
a
d
)

0 100
1
Hysteresis
Wet
Dry
Adhesion
Braking coefficient affected by
1. Velocity
Dry road f 1/V for both
Adhesion and Hysteresis
Wet road only within sudden
water thickness
2. Inflation Pressure
Dry road f mildly affected
Wet road f P
3. Vertical Load, F
z
F 1/F
z
for both dry and wet
road

Problem
Consider a light truck weighting 1649 kg,
performing a full stop 100 km/hr on a level
surface with a brake application that develops
a steady brake force of 8900 N. Determine the
deceleration, stopping distance, time to stop,
energy dissipated and the brake horsepower
at initial application and averaged over the
stop. Neglect aerodynamic and rolling
resistance forces.
Brake Proportioning
Lockup reduces the brake on an axle, and results in some loss of ability to
control the vehicle.
Balancing by proportioning the braking pressure to both front and rear axles
accordance with the peak traction forces possible.
d rs x r
d fs x f
W - W
L
h
g
W
D
L
b
W W
W W
L
h
g
W
D
L
c
W W
= =
+ = + =
Axle static
load
Dynamic load
transfer
Load transfer during deceleration:
Brake Proportioning
friction of t coefficien Peak
where
D
g
W
L
h
W W F
and
D
g
W
L
h
W W F
p
x rs p r p xmr
x fs p f p xmf
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
= =
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ = =
Maximum brake force on each axle given by:
M
F F
D
and
M
F F
D
xf xmr
x
xr xmf
x
+
=
+
=
velocity Forward V
vehicle on the forces on decelerati al longitudin all of total The F
where
dt
dV
M
F
D
slides, Previous From
xt
xt
x
=
=
= =
Front rear
rear Front
Brake Proportioning
r
P
G
r
T
F
: G Gain, Brake by described
be can wheels individual on force brake The
L
h
1
F
L
h
W
F
L
h
1
F
L
h
W
F
: axle each on force braking maximum Finally,
a b
b
p
xf rs p
xmr
p
xr fs p
xmf
= =
+
|
.
|
\
|

=
|
.
|
\
|
+
=
F
r
o
n
t

B
r
a
k
e

F
o
r
c
e

Rear Brake Force
L
h
1
W
p
fs p
Front and
rear lockup
L
h
1
W
p
fs p
+
L
h
1
h/L
Slope
p
p
=
L
h
1
h/L
Slope
p
p
+
=
Brake torque
Brake force
Brake gain (Nm/kPa)
Application pressure
Tire rolling radius
Brake Proportioning Proportioning Valve
kPa 3450 P for 3450) - 0.3(P 3450 P and P P
kPa 3450 P for Pressure n Applicatio P P P
mean Which
kPa/0.3 3450 Example
rear at increment l /additiona both wheel for pressure Equal
valve ning Proportino
a a r a f
a a r f
> + = =
< = = =
=
=
Anti-Lock Brake Systems
Sense wheel lockup occurs
Release the brakes momentarily on locked
wheels
Reapply them when wheel spins up again

Consists of an ECU, solenoid (for release
and reapply) and wheel speed sensor

Wheel slip (%)
B
r
a
k
i
n
g

c
o
e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
t

1
2
3
Cycling
Wheel speed diminish more or less in
accordance with vehicle speed region 1
Start to slip
Wheel speed begin to drop rapidly
indicating the tire has gone through the peak
of the -slip curve
heading toward lockup
ABS intervenes and release the
brakes on those wheels before
lockup occurs
Wheel speed picks up again the
brakes are reapplied
1
2
3
Times (sec)
W
h
e
e
l

S
p
e
e
d

LR
RR
LF
RF
Rear Wheel Lock Up
Lock up of front wheels causes loss of the ability to steer
the vehicle and it will generally continue straight ahead
despite any steering inputs, drifting to the side only in
response to cross slope or side winds

Rear wheel lock up places a motor vehicle in an unstable
condition.

Once it lock up, any yaw disturbances will initiate a
rotation of the vehicle

Braking efficiency
p
act
b
D
=
- To recognizing that braking performance of any vehicle will vary according
to the friction of the road surface
- Defined as the ratio of actual deceleration (in gs) achieved to the best
performance possible on the given road surface
- As a design tool to assess success in optimizing the vehicle braking
system
- Determined by calculating brake forces, deceleration, axle loads, and
braking coefficient on each axle as a function of application pressure
- Useful method for evaluating the performance of brake systems
Problem
Calculate the braking coefficients and braking efficiency for a
passenger car in 650 kPa increments of application pressure
up to 4850 kPa, given the following information:

Wheelbase = 275.6 cm
CGH = 52 cm Tire radius = 30.8 cm
Weights : W
f
= 1002 kg W
r
= 845.5 kg Total = 1847.5 kg
Front brake gain = 20 in-Ib/psi
Rear brake gain = 14 in-Ib/psi
Proportioning valve design = 2000/0.3
Chapter 4 : Road Loads and Tires
By
Dr. Gan Leong Ming
Aerodynamics
Major impact on modern cars and trucks through
its contribution to road load

Causing DRAG, LIFT (or down load), LATERAL
FORCES, moments in ROLL, PITCH and YAW,
and NOISE, FUEL economy, HANDLING and
NVH

Forces arise from FORM (PRESSURE) DRAG
and VISCOUS FRICTION
Aerodynamics
Usage of Aerodynamics
Aerodynamics
Aerodynamics
Based on the Bernoullis Equation,
car) the to (relative air of Velocity V
air of Density
where
P V 1/2 P
P P P
t
2
s
l
tota dynamic static
=
=
= +
= +
Aerodynamics
Increasing
pressure
Decreasing
pressure
P
atm
C
p
=1
C
p
=0
C
p
=-3
Bernoullis Equation explains how
the pressure and velocity must vary
in the gross air flow over a car body
Aerodynamics Flow Separation
-Prevents the flow from simply proceeding down the back side of a car
-The drag forces arising from the action of viscous friction in the
boundary layer on the surface of the car is the friction drag

Separation
point
Vortices
Pressure Distribution on a Vehicle
+
-
-
-
-
- +
= Pressure
As flow rising
over the hood
Adverse pressure
create potential
stall and hence
drag
Flow turn upward,
thus high pressure
Ideal region for climate
control system, intake
system, keeping wiper
in location
Air try to flow over
the roof contour
Continuing over the
backlite on to the trunk
because of the continue
curvature
Region for flow
separation
Flow along the
sides will also
attempts to feed
air into this region
Add to the potential for
separation
Combination of low pressure and flow
over roof form VORTICES trailing off
the back of the vehicle
Pressure Distribution on a Vehicle
Vortices
Flow from side
Flow from side
Aerodynamic Lift and Drag Pressures Backlite angles and deck lid
lengths
-Control of the separation point (not eliminate, but reduce)
-Ideal aerodynamic shape : teardrop rear shape
-Can be cutoff without much penalty of a large separation area
-Size of separation area affects the aerodynamic drag directly (affects the
aerodynamic lift at the rear)
Aerodynamic Lift and Drag Pressures Backlite angles and deck lid
lengths
Potential of dirt deposition due to flow separation (which cause
turbulence flow in the separation zone)
Cause vision obstructed
Dirt on rear roof
block vision
Dirt which block tail light
History of Coefficient of Drag
Heavy Truck Parasitic Loss
Heavy Truck Power Loss
Aerodynamic Forces
Result of the air stream interacting with the vehicle
Direction Force Moment
Longitudinal Drag Rolling Moment
(x-axis, positive rearward)
Lateral Sideforce Pitching Moment
(y-axis, positive to the right)
Vertical Lift Yawing Moment
(z-axis, positive upward)
Aerodynamic Forces
Lift (Down force)
Increases tire loading for better traction
Increases as a function of the speed squared

Induced Drag
The drag that results from production of down
force
Increases as a function of the speed squared

Down force and Drag change the balance of the
car front to rear
Drag Components
Drag largest and most
important force encountered
by passenger car

65% arises from body due to
separation zone at the rear

Drag Components - rear end inclination angle
Graph indicate influence of rear end inclination angle on the drag for
various lengths of rear extension

Slope angles up to 15 degrees consistently reduce drag

Drag increase again as the angle increase due to flow separation
Drag Components - Forebody drag
Forebody drag
influenced by the
design of the front end
and windshield angle

roundness of the front
end cause dynamic
pressure to induce drag

Minimum drag is
obtained when the
stagnation point is kept
low on the frontal
profile
Drag Components - Windshield
Windshield establishes the
flow direction as it approaches
the horizontal roof

Shallow angle reduce drag

Steep angle cause the air
velocity reduce by the high
pressure in that region

Shallow angle cause high
wind speed, adding to
dynamic loads on the
windshield wipers
Drag Components - Underbody
Suspensions, exhaust systems
and other protruding
components on the underbody
responsible for the drag

Smooth underbody panel help
to minimize underbody drag

Wheels and wheel wells are
major contributor for underbody
drag

Decrease the clearance
between the underside and the
ground and minimize the wheel
cavity decreases the total
aerodynamic drag from the
wheel
Drag Components - Cooling System
Cooling system is the last
major contribution to drag

Air flow through the
radiator exerting dynamic
pressure as drag on the
vehicle

Affect the drag coefficient
by as much as 0.025

Cooling inlet size is held
to the practical minimum
in order to reduce drag
Aerodynamic Aids Bumper Spoiler
Aerodynamic surfaces extending downward from the
bumper to block and redirect the shear flow that impacts
on the underbody components
Although it also contribute drag, it is significantly reduce
underbody drag
Low pressure produced also has the effect of reducing
front-end lift

Aerodynamic Aids Air Dams
Flow-blocking surfaces installed at the perimeter of the
radiator
To improve flow through the radiator at lower vehicle
speeds
Decrease pressure behind the radiator/fan
Reduce drag by reduction of pressure on the firewall
Aerodynamic Aids Deck Lid Spoilers
Deflecting the air upward
cause pressure increased on
the rear deck

It will create down force at the
most advantageous point on
the vehicle to reduce rear lift

Stabilize the vortices in the
separation flow

tend to increase drag
Aerodynamic Aids Window and Pillar Treatments
Drip rails and offset between windows and pillars
sources of drag
Cause small separation zones
Disturbance to the air in the high velocity air stream
causes momentum loss which creates drag
Smooth contour could help reduce drag and
aerodynamic noise
Optimization
Adaptation of streamlined
shapes from other
disciplines (ship)

Application of the fluid
mechanics from aircraft
aerodynamics

Optimize detail design to
obtain good air flow
characteristics
Optimization Wind Tunnel
Drag
A semi empirical models to represent the drag effect.
The aerodynamic drag is characterized by
headwind and speed vehicle to due velocity Total V
Density Air
area) (projected vehicle the of area Frontal A
t coefficien drag c Aerodynami C
where
A C V 1/2 D
D
D
2
A
=
=
=
=
=
Density of the air is variable depending on temperature, pressure and

humidity conditions.
Could be estimated using the following equation:
Celsius degrees in ature Air temper T
s kiloPascal in pressure c Atmospheri P
where
T 273.16
288.16
101.325
P
225 . 1
r
r
r
r
=
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
.
|
\
|
=
Drag Coefficient
Determined experimentally from wind tunnel tests
(area) pressure) (Dynamic
force Drag
A V
D
C
2
2
1
A
D
= =
Drag Coefficient
In practice, vehicle driving along a road experiences atmospheric
winds in addition to the wind component arising from its speed

When the atmospheric wind blows toward the vehicle a headwind is
present, and the total velocity is
speed Wind V
speed Vehicle V
where
V V V
w
v
w v
=
=
+ =
Tailwind
(V
w
=-tive)
Headwind
(V
w
=+tive)
speed vehicle V
where
A C ) V V ( V 1/2 P
A C ) V V ( 1/2 A C V 1/2 D
D
2
w v A
D
2
w v D
2
A
=
+ =
+ = =

Side Force
Impose by lateral wind when car changing its travel direction

Value depend on the vehicle and the nature of the wind

For strong crosswind, side force will be larger than drag force

For steady state wind conditions, the side force imposed on a vehicle
in a crosswind is given by
area frontal A
angle) wind relative the of (function t coefficien force Side C
velocity wind Total V
force Side S
where
A C V 1/2 S
S
A
S
2
A
=
=
=
=
=
Side Force
C
S
as a function of wind angle

Side force acts on the body at the center of pressure (located ahead
of the center of gravity)

Results in an overturning moment and a yaw moment whenever a
side force is present
Lift Force
Cause by the pressure differential from the top to the
bottom of the vehicle

Significant concern in aerodynamic because of their
influence on driving stability

Measured at the centerline of the vehicle at the center of
the wheelbase
area Frontal A
t coefficien Lift C
force Lift L
where
A C V 1/2 L
L
A
L
2
A
=
=
=
=
Lift Force
Depend on the overall shape of the vehicle

Cause pitching moment to the vehicle

Have negative impact on handling through the reduced control forces
available at the tires

FRONT LIFT reduces steering controllability

Reduce by front bumper spoilers and rearward inclination of front
surfaces

REAR LIFT reduces stability, the most variable with vehicle design

Flow depart with a downward angle at the rear of the vehicle create
rear lift

Decreased by use underbody pans, spoilers, and change in the angle
of attack of the body
Pitching Moment
Lift force decrease (or increase) the weight on the
axles
Pitching moment acts to transfer weight between
the front and rear axles
Wheelbase L
area Frontal A
t coefficien moment Pitching C
moment Pitching PM
where
AL C V 1/2 PM
Moment, Pitching
PM
PM
2
=
=
=
=
=
Wheelbase is use as a characteristic length to
achieve dimensional consistency in the
equation
Yawing Moment
Arise because the lateral force by the side wind
does not normally act at the mid-wheelbase
position
Wheelbase L
area Frontal A
t coefficien moment Yawing C
moment Yawing PM
where
AL C V 1/2 YM
Moment, Yawing
PM
YM
2
=
=
=
=
=
C
YM
varies with wind direction
Rolling Moment
Wheelbase L
area Frontal A
t coefficien moment Rolling C
moment Rolling PM
where
AL C V 1/2 RM
Moment, Rolling
PM
RM
2
=
=
=
=
=
Arise because the lateral force by the side wind acts at an
elevated point on the vehicle
Give minor influence on vehicle stability, depending
largely on the roll steer properties of the suspensions
Rolling moment coefficient is sensitive to
wind direction much like the yawing
moment coefficient
Crosswind Sensitivity
Generally refers to the lateral and yawing
response of a vehicle in the presence of
transverse wind disturbances

Affect the drivers ability to hold the vehicle in
position

Dependent on
Aerodynamic properties
Vehicle dynamic properties (weight distribution, tire
properties and suspensions)
Steering system characteristics (compliances, friction
and torque assist)
Driver closed-loop steering behavior and preferences
Rolling Resistance
Major vehicle resistance force on level ground is
the rolling resistance of the tires

Primary motion resistance force at low speed
condition

Significant retardation force for off-highway and
level ground operation

Cause large part of the power expended in a
rolling wheel is converted into heat within the tire
(limiting factor in the tire performance)`
Rolling Resistance
Mechanisms responsible for rolling resistance

1. Energy loss due to deflection of the tire sidewall
near the contact area
2. Energy loss due to deflection of the tread elements
3. Scrubbing in the contact patch
4. Tire slip in the longitudinal and lateral directions
5. Deflection of the road surface
6. Air drag on the inside and outside of the tire
7. Energy loss on bumps
Total Road Loads
vehicle the of Weight W
t coefficien resistance Rolling f
rear tires the of resistance Rolling R
s front tire the of resistance Rolling R
where
W f R R R
resistance rolling Total
r
xr
xf
r xr xf x
=
=
=
=
= + =
Factors Affecting Rolling Resistance
Tire Temperature
-Energy loss due to
deflection in the tire
material
-As tire begin to roll from
cold condition,
temperature rise and the
rolling resistance will
diminish over a first
period of travel
Inflation Pressure/Load
-Inflation pressure
determine the tire
elasticity
-In combination with load,
determines the deflection
in the sidewalls and
contact region

Velocity
-Direct proportional to
speed because
increased flexing work
and vibration in the tire
body
-Small effect at low and
moderate speed
-More pronounced when
speed is combined with
lower inflation pressure
Tire Material and Design
-Materials and thickness of both
the tire sidewalls (plies) and
thread determine the stiffness
and energy loss in the rolling
tire
-Although hysterisis important
for wet condition, it degrades
rolling resistance performance
-Worn-out, smooth thread tires
show coefficient values up to
20% lower than new tires
Tire Slips
-Wheel slip during wheel
transferring tractive or
braking forces, cause rolling
resistance
-Increased as the total of slip
percentage increased.
-Same effect during cornering
performance
-Effect of tire slips to rolling
resistance is readily observed
in normal driving when
vehicle loss grip during
cornering
Typical Coefficient
Virtually impossible to devise a formula that take all
variables into account
mph in Speed V
where
V/100) 0.01(1 f
speed, low For
r
=
+ =
t coefficien effect Speed f
t coefficien Basic f
mph in Speed V
where
V/100) (1 3.24f f f
speed, high For
s
o
2.5
s o r
=
=
=
+ + =
Typical Coefficient
1.5 C blacktop, hot For
1.2 C blacktop, cold brick, concrete, For worn
1.0 C concrete, smooth For
t coefficien surface Road C
mph in speed V
where
ply tires - Bias C 0.000046V) (0.0066 f
tires Radial C 0.000041V) (0.0041 f
k, heavy truc For
h
h
h
h
h r
h r
=
=
=
=
=
+ =
+ =
Tractive forces
The forces acting at the tire footprint to
either maintain velocity or change
velocity.

Road Load Forces
The forces acting at a given velocity
that oppose vehicle tractive forces.
Road load forces usually are simply
rolling plus aerodynamic forces.

Forces on a Vehicle
Total Road Load
Summation of rolling resistance, aerodynamics drag, road grade (if
available)
u Wsin A C V 1/2 W f R
D
2
r RL
+ + =
Total power loss due to Road load is equal to the total road load
multiple by vehicle speed
V ) Wsin A C V 1/2 W f ( P
D
2
r RL
u + + =
Tires
Tire serves essentially three basic
functions:

i. It supports the vertical load, while cushioning
against road shocks

ii. It develops longitudinal forces for acceleration
and braking

iii. It develops lateral forces for cornering
Tire Construction
Two basic construction are broadly used
- Parallel plies, reinforced
by nylon, rayon, polyester
or fiberglass

- Extremely flexible
sidewall, soft ride,
provide little or no
directional stability

- Directional stability : by a
stiff belt of fabric or steel
wire in circumference
direction
- Made of two or more
plies extending from
bead to bead with
cords at high angles

- High angles result in
tires which are soft
for ride comfort but
low angles best for
directional stability
Tire Construction
Tire Construction
Tire Construction
Tire tread pattern is important for many tire
performances such as traction, wear,
hydroplaning, noise and vibration.
Tire tread pattern has strong interaction
with the road, and water, snow, mud, etc
on the road.
Size and Load Rating
Denoted by one of several methods, including
section height, aspect ratio and rim diameter
Bias tire : 6.95-14 (section width, rim size) in
inches
Radial tire : 175R14 (section width in mm, rim
diameter in inches)
P-metric method : P175/70R14 (passenger car,
175mm section width, 70 aspect ratio, R-radial,
B-belt, D-bias) and 14 inch rim)
Terminology and Axis System
Wheel plane central plane of the tire normal to
the axis of rotation
Wheel center intersection of the spin axis and
the wheel plane
Center of tire contact intersection of the wheel
plane and projection of the spin axis onto the
road plane
Loaded radius distance from center of tire
contact to the wheel center in the wheel plane
Longitudinal force, Fx component of the force
acting on the tire by the road and parallel to the
intersection of the wheel plane with road plane
Lateral force, Fy component of the force acting
on the tire by the road in the plane of the road
and normal to the intersection of the wheel plane
with the road plane
Normal force, Fz component of the force acting
on the tire by the road which is normal to the
plane of the road
Overturning moment, Mx moment acting on the
tire by the road in the plane of the road and
parallel to the intersection of the wheel plane with
the road plane
Rolling resistance moment, My moment acting
on the tire by the road in the plane of the road
and normal to the intersection of the wheel plane
with the road plane
Aligning moment, Mz moment acting on the tire
by the road which is normal to the plane of the
road
Slip angle, - angle between the direction
of wheel heading and the direction of
travel.
Camber angle - angle between the wheel
plane and the vertical
Study on Tire
The focus for tire FEM simulation
Durability
Ensure tire will not fail during the life of a tire.
Tread wear
Tire tread should be worn as even as possible and as long as
possible.
Environmental concerns
Reduction of tire rolling resistance.
Vehicle handling
Tire fitted to vehicle to provide best braking, traction and emergency
handling.
Vehicle comfort
Tire with optimized Noise, Vibration and Harshness (NVH)
performance.

Study on Tire
Question
A heavy truck weighting 72,500 Ib rolls along
170 in Denver at a seed of 67 mph. The air
temperature is 55oF and the barometric
pressure is 26.01in Hg. The truck is 8 wide
by 13.5 high, and has an aerodynamic drag
coefficient of 0.65. the truck has radial-ply
tires. Calculate the aerodynamic drag, the
rolling resistance (according to the SAE
equations) and the road load horsepower at
these conditions.
Question
A passenger car has a frontal area of 21
square feet and a drag coefficient of 0.42. it is
traveling along at 55 mph. Calculate the
aerodynamic drag and the associated
horsepower requirements if it is driving into a
25mph headwind, and a 25mph tailwind.
By
Dr. Gan Leong Ming
Chapter 5 : Ride
What is Handling ?
Stability measures the time domain response of a vehicle to
disturbance inputs
1. Normal driving
2. Spirited driving
3. Emergency maneuvers

Departure from linearity induces anxiety in most drivers in
accident avoidance maneuvers potentially leading to loss of
control.

Driving pleasure is a subjective evaluation of how easy it is for
drivers to use their car at its handling limit in a variety of
situations.

Handling is influenced by component design, track and wheel
base, CG height, chassis stiffness, active systems, but mainly
tires.
What is Ride ?
Ride Comfort is a frequency weighted measure
of vertical acceleration together with subjective
assessments of harshness over various external
road surface induced excitations.

Ride is determined by spring, bushing and
damper stiffness, component weights and natural
frequencies.

The Vehicle Dynamics Engineer is challenged to
strike the best balance between ride and
handling to establish the desired vehicle
character.
Introduction
Vehicle experience a broad spectrum of vibrations (due to
high speed travel)

ride reference to tactile (physical) and visual
vibrations

Aural (Acoustic) vibrations noise

Ride frequency 0 to 25 Hz

Noise frequency 25 to 20,000 Hz

Design and construction quality of a car judge by the
vibration environment
Introduction
Study of lower-frequency ride vibrations
mode important for vehicle dynamics

EXCITATION
SOURCES
Road roughness
Tire/wheel
Driveline
Engine
VEHICLE
DYNAMIC
RESPONSE
VIBRATIONS
RIDE PERCEPTION
(Vehicle System)
(input to vehicle vibration)
(determine the magnitude and
direction of vibrations imposed
on the passenger compartment)
Introduction
Main topics of ride study including,
1. Ride excitation sources
2. Basic mechanics of vehicle vibration response
3. Human perception and tolerance of vibrations
Excitation Sources
Two classes of ride vibrations

Road roughness

On-board from rotating components
(include the tire/wheel assemblies,
driveline and engine)
Excitation Sources
Road Roughness
Tire/Wheel
Assembly
Driveline
Engine/
Transmission
Excitation Sources Road Roughness
Road Roughness
Potholes from
pavement failure to
ever-present road
Measurement of elevation
along wheel tracks (deviation in
elevation along a road)
Road serve as broad-band
random signals
Measured using PSM (power
Spectral Density) function
- Every road section is unique

- Characteristic drop in amplitude
with wavenumber (Representing
PSD)

- Represent the deviations in the
road surface on the order of few
feet to hundreds of feet in length

- Higher amplitudes rougher roads
Portland Cement concrete (pcc) rigid pavement
Constant amplitude at low frequency, begins increase rapidly above 1Hz
Road roughness presents its largest input to vehicle at high frequency (high
frequency ride vibrations)
Important to design ride isolation behavior suspension on highway vehicle
Road roughness vertical input to the vehicle that would excite bounce and
pitch motions
Excitation Sources Tire / Wheel Assembly
Soft and compliant to absorb road bumps as part of the ride isolation
system
Imperfections in
rotating system cause
-Mass imbalance
-Dimensional variations
-Stiffness variations
Variations in the forces
and moment as it rolls
Transmitted to axle
(excitation sources for
ride vibrations
Forces (vertical,
longitudinal and lateral
direction
Moments (overturning,
aligning torque, rolling
resistance) for steering
system vibrations
Dynamics imbalance (non-
uniform and asymmetric
mass along axis of rotation)
Creates rotating torque
on the wheel (tire
absorb variations)
Steered wheels steering
vibrations due to excitation
Contribution to imbalance effect
by tires, wheels, hubs and
brake drums
Significant effect of the non-uniformities in
a tire/wheel assembly is the generation of
excitation forces and displacements at the
axle of the vehicle as the wheel rotates.
Radial/vertical force variations may be due to the runout of the hub
and wheel

Various harmonics of radial non-uniformities in a tire/wheel assembly
: functionally equivalent to imperfections in shapes

1
st
harmonic due to the runout

Higher harmonic runouts in the wheel are not as closely related to
radial force variations in the overall assembly
1
st
harmonic (eccentricity)
tires, wheels and hubs individually may exhibit radial eccentricity
Produces both radial and tractive excitation on the axle

2
nd
harmonic (Ovality)
Tires and wheels may have eliptical variations that add or subtract
depending on the mounting positions

Higher-order radial variations
Predominantly of importance in the tire only
Such variations are substantially absorbed by the tire
Effects may arise from construction methods

Radial force variations is relatively independent
of speed
Tractive force variations arise from dimensional and
stiffness non-uniformities as a result of two effects
Roll up and down the hill
Longitudinal force is
involved and a tractive force
variation is observed
Magnitude dependent on the load
carried and amount of
eccentricity, independent of speed
Lateral force variations arise from non-
uniformities in the tire, but cannot be readily
related to lateral runnout effects in the wheel or
hub components

Independent of speed

1
st
order lateral runnout cause wobble, which
affect the dynamic balance of the assembly

Higher order lateral variations predominantly
important in the tire only
Excitation Sources Driveline Excitation
Noise could be generate as a result of gear
mating reactions

Torsional vibration occur along drivetrain
Driveline
Driveshaft
Gear reduction
Differential in the drive
axle
Axle shafts to the
wheels
Together with spline and universal joints
most potential for exciting ride vibrations
Source of driveshaft ride
excitations
Mass imbalance
Asymmetry of the
rotating parts
Shaft off-center
Not straight
Running clearances
Elastic member
and defect
Secondary couples
Mean the use of
universal joints in a
driveline

Proportional to the
torque applied to the
driveline and the
angle of the universal
joint
Excitation Sources Engine/Transmission
Engine
Primary source
Source for vibration
excitation
Flywheel As inertial damper
Create torque
variations
Acts through the driveline,
as excitation forces
Engine roll most important
vibration direction (due to
firing frequency)
Isolating methods
design a mounting
system with a roll
axis that aligns with
engine inertial roll
axis (resonance
must below the
firing frequency)
Other excitation force depend on
engine configuration and type

1. 4 cyl inline : vertical force (balance by
counter-rotating shafts)

2. 4 cyl opposed, flat : force and moment
in rotational frequency

3. 6 cyl inline : balanced in all direction

4. 6 cyl 60deg V : counter ratating couple
at rotational frequency (balanced by
counter-rotating shaft)

5. 8 cyl inline : balanced in all direction
The sprung mass resting on the suspension and the tires
is capable of vertical motion. The effective stiffness of the
suspension and tire springs in series is called the ride
rate or wheel rate and is determines as follows:
( )
stiffness tire K
stiffness suspension K
rate ride RR
where
K K
K K
= RR
t
s
t s
t s
=
=
=
+
Ride Rate and Natural Frequency
Ride Rate and Natural Frequency
In the absence of damping, the bounce natural frequency at each corner of
the vehicle can be determined from:
gravity of on accelerati g
mass sprung front the of weight Mg W
mass sprung front M
where
Hz] , [cycle/sec
/g W
RR
2
1
c) (radian/se
M
RR
rf
rf
rf
rf
rf
=
= =
=
|
.
|
\
|
=
=
e
e
Because there is so little difference between the undamped and damped natural
frequency, the undamped is commonly used to characterize the vehicle
suspension.
The lowest acceleration occurs at the natural frequency of 1 Hz. At
higher values of natural frequency (stiffer springs) the acceleration peak
in the range 1-5 Hz increases reflecting greater transmission of road
acceleration inputs.
Effect of acceleration transmit to Sprung Mass Natural Frequency
Good to keeping the suspension soft for ride
isolation where the given vehicle size and
suspension envelope constrain the natural
frequency for most cars to a minimum in the
1 to 1.5 Hz range
For performance car, stiff suspension is required
for better handling but ride is sacrificed with
natural frequency up to 2 -2.5 Hz
Road frequency is taken as input to study the sprung mass natural frequency
Perception of Ride
Perception/sensitivity normally associated with the
level of comfort experienced when traveling in a vehicle

Perceived ride cumulative product of many factors

Tactile vibrations transmitted to the passengers body
through the seat, hands, feet

Acoustic vibrations (noise) : type of noise, level of noise
(correlated with other vehicle vibrations)

Comfort seat design influence by design (fits to the
passenger, temperature, ventilation, interior space, hand
holdsride quality)
Perception of Ride
Some of the variables to judge the ride
vibrations:
Seating position
Influence of hand and foot vibration input
Single versus multiple-frequency input
Multi-direction input
Comfort scaling
Duration of exposure
Sound and visual vibration inputs
Conclusion
The ultimate goal for ride research is to eliminate
all vibrations in a vehicle

Good direction for development effort :

1. Elimination of in vibration will always expose another
lesser annoyance

2. Impossible to eliminate all vibration, somehow
vibrations are the source of road feel considered to be
essential feedback to the driver of a motor vehicle
Problem
Determine the front and rear suspension
ride rate for a 5.0L Mustang given that the
tire rate is 213.94 kg/cm. The front
suspension rate is 25.54 kg/cm and the
rear is 17.86 kg/cm. Also estimate the
natural frequencies of the two suspensions
when the front tire are loaded to 4258 N
and the rear tires are at 3248 N each
Chapter 6 :Steady-state Cornering
By
Dr. Gan Leong Ming
Introduction
Closed-loop system : responsiveness of a
vehicle to driver input, measure of the
vehicle-driver combination

Open-loop system : vehicle characteristic
measurement, vehicle response to specific
steering inputs/ Directional response
behavior
Introduction
Understeer gradient :
Measure of performance under steady state
conditions
Used to measure open-loop system

Open-loop cornering :
Or directional response behavior
Analyze turning at low speed and then high speed
condition
Low Speed Turning
Low speed parking lot maneuvers
Tires need not develop lateral forces
No slip angle

Low Speed Turning
Steer angles for low speed turning (radians) is
) t/2 R (
L
) t/2 R (
L
i
o
~
+
~
o
o
Average angle of the front wheels (assuming
small angles) is defined as Ackermann Angle
R
L
= o
Low Speed Turning Ackermann Steering/Geometry
As a result of track width the tires on the inside
and outside of a vehicle in a turn roll on different
radii.

A vehicle with Ackermann steering will produce
differing steer angles. The inside tire is steered at
a greater angle than the outside tire of the
steered axle if Ackermann steer is achieved.

Varying amounts of Ackermann are achieved and
are presented as a % of true (100%) Ackermann.
Determine by Track width and wheel base length

Achieved through steering arm angles, tie rod angles and
selected other variables.

Front steer vehicles (steering in front of the axle) tend to
have greater space restriction on the availability for
Ackermann correction.

Tire selection and vehicle goals may determine final
Ackermann goals (eg. tire wear).

The steering torques tend to increase consistently with
steer angle natural feel in the feedback through the
steering wheel
High Speed Cornering Tire cornering forces
Turning equations differ because lateral acceleration will
be present

Tire must develop lateral force, which cause lateral slip
as it rolls

SLIP ANGLE : angle between direction of heading and
direction of travel
For low slip angles (5 degrees or less), the cornering force
is described by
o
o
C F
y
=
Cornering stiffness
Cornering stiffness depends on
Tire size
Type (radial, bias ply)
Number of plies
Cord angles
Wheel width
Thread and etc
Tire load and inflation pressure will influence the cornering
force
Speed does not influence the cornering force
Tire cornering properties may described by cornering
coefficient
/deg) /N (N /F C CC
z y z o o
=
Usually largest at light loads

Diminishing continuously as the load reaches its rated
value (refer to Tire & Rim Association rated load)

At 100% load, CC
0.2 N
y
/N
z
/deg
High Speed Cornering Cornering Equations
For analysis purpose, vehicle is represent by the bicycle
model as below
At high speeds, radius of turn is much larger than
the wheelbase

Turning radius is small

Different between outside and inside steer angles
is negligible

Cornering force equivalent to both wheels

Same assumption for rear wheel
turn the of Radius R
velocity Forward V
vehicle the of Mass M
axle rear at the force ) (cornering Lateral F
axle front at the force ) (cornering Lateral F
/R MV F F F
yr
yf
2
yr yf y
=
=
=
=
=
= + =

In a moment equilibrium about the center of gravity,
/R) (V Mc/L F /R) (V Mb/L F
L/b F c) (b F 1) (c/b F /R MV
equation, previous back to ng Substituti
c/b F F
Then
0 c F - b F
2
yf
2
yr
yr yr yr
2
yr yf
yr yf
= =
= + = + =
=
=
The portion of the vehicle
mass on rear axle, W
r
/g
The portion of the vehicle
mass on front axle, W
f
/g
Lateral acceleration
Since , hence
o
o
C F
y
=
gR) /(C V W
and
gR) /(C V W
r
2
r r
f
2
f f
o
o
o
o
=
=
Based on the bicycle model analysis,
gR
V
C
W
C
W
R
L
3 . 57
gR C
V W
gR C
V W
R
L
3 . 57
finally and
- L/R 3 . 57
2
r
r
f
f
r
2
r
f
2
f
r f
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
+ =
+ =
o o
o o
o o
W
f
refer to one tire, not two
W
r
refer to one tire, not two
ATTENTION!!
High Speed Cornering Understeer Gradient
(g) on accelerati Lateral a
(deg/g) gradient Understeer K
where
Ka
R
L
3 . 57
form shortland a in
gR
V
C
W
C
W
R
L
3 . 57
y
y
2
r
r
f
f
=
=
+ =
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
o o
Describes how the steer angle of the
vehicle must changed with the radius
of R, or lateral acceleration V
2
/(gR)
Case 1 : Neutral Steer
r f r r f f
0 K /C W /C W o o
o o
= = =
No change in steer angle will be required as the cornering
speed varied

Steer angle required equivalent to Ackerman Angle, 57.3
L/R

Balance on the vehicle such that force of the lateral
acceleration at the CG causes an identical increase in slip
angle at both the front and rear wheels
Case 2 : Understeer Steer
r f r r f f
0 K /C W /C W o o
o o
> > >
Steer angle will have to increase with speed in proportion
to K (deg/g) times the lateral acceleration in gs

Increase linearly with lateral acceleration and with square
of the speed

Lateral acceleration at the CG causes the front wheels to
slip sideways to a greater extent than at the rear
wheels
Case 3 : Oversteer Steer
r f r r f f
0 K /C W /C W o o
o o
< < <
Steer angle will have to decrease with speed (and lateral
acceleration) is increased

Lateral acceleration at the CG causes the rear wheels to
increase more than at the front

Outward drift at the rear turns the front wheels inward,
thus diminishing the radius of turn

The process continues unless the steer angle is reduced
to maintain the radius of turn
Characteristic Speed
- The speed at which the steer angle
required to negotiate any turn is
twice the Ackerman Angle
Lg/K 57.3 V
char
=
Critical Speed
- Will cause the vehicle unstable
- K in negative in value
- Dependent on wheelbase
- Long-wheelbase vehicles have a
higher critical speed
- Still can be driven at speeds less than
the critical
- Directionally unstable at and above
the critical speed
- More apparent through its influence on
lateral acceleration gain and yaw gain
Lg/K 57.3 - V
crit
=
High Speed Cornering Lateral Acceleration Gain
Purpose of steering 1 : Produce lateral acceleration
(deg/sec)
57.3Lg
KV
1
57.3Lg
V
a
gain, n accelertio Lateral
2
2
y
+
=
o
K=0 (neutral steer), acceleration gain V
2

K>0 (understeer), acceleration gain is always less than the neutral
steer

K<0 (oversteer), increasing the lateral acceleration gain
Dependent on V
2
, equal to 1 when reaches the critical speed (infinite
gain)
High Speed Cornering Yaw Velocity Gain
Purpose of steering 2 : change the heading angle by
developing a yaw velocity (yaw rate)
57.3Lg
KV
1
V/L r
angle, steering to velocity Yaw
(deg/sec) 57.3V/R r
angle), heading in rotation of (rate velocity Yaw
2
+
=
=
o
High Speed Cornering Yaw Velocity Gain
Ratio represent a gain which proportional to velocity in
the case of neutral steer
Infinite
Significance as the speed at
which the vehicle is most
responsive in yaw
High Speed Cornering Sideslip angle
For zero lateral acceleration, rear wheel tracks
inboard of the front wheel

Rear wheel must drift outboard as the lateral
acceleration increases

To develop necessary slip angles on the rear tires

Sideslip angle : the angle between the longitudinal
axis and the local direction of travel

Will be different at every point on a car during
cornering
Sideslip angle is defined as positive for low
speed turn

The direction of travel is oriented clockwise (for
this case)
For high speed turn, the slip angle on the rear
wheels causes the sideslip angle at the CG to
become negative
Sideslip angle,
) gR C ( V W c/R 3 . 57
- 57.3c/R
r
2
r
r
o
|
o |
=
=
Speed when the sideslip angle become zero is
turn of radius the of t independen * *
/W cC 3 . 57
r r o |
g V =
High Speed Cornering Static Margin
Provides a measure of the steady-state
handling behavior

Determined by the point on the vehicle
where a side force will produce no steady-
state yaw velocity (neutral steer point)

Neutral steer line : locus of points in x-z
plane along which external lateral forces
produce no steady-state yaw velocity
Neutral Steer Point

The theoretical point along the longitudinal axis of
the vehicle through which a lateral force can be
applied without a yaw response.

A neutral steer point in front of the center of
gravity results in a steady-state over steer.

A neutral steer point after of the center of gravity
results in a steady-state understeer
Static margin is defined as the distance the neutral steer
point falls behind the CG, normalized by the wheelbase
e/L Margin Static =
Typical vehicle static margin range : 0.05 to 0.07 behind the CG
Problem
A car has a weight of 862.3 kg front axle and 704 kg on the rear with a wheelbase
of 2.56 m. The tires have the following cornering stiffness

Load (N) Cornering stiffness (N/deg) cornering coefficient (N/N/deg)
1100 299 0.299
2200 546 0.274
3300 775 0.269
4400 1081 0.268
5500 1264 0.236
6600 1475 0.235

Determine the following cornering properties for the vehicle:

1.Ackerman steer angles for 180, 80, 45 and 25 m turn radius
2.Understeer gradient
3.Characteristic speed
4.Lateral acceleration gain at 85 km/hr
5.Yaw velocity gain at 85 km/hr
6.Sideslip angle at the CG on an 220 m turn at 85 km/hr
7.Static margin
Chapter 7 : Suspensions
By
Dr. Gan Leong Ming
Introduction
Basically, suspensions are employed to deal with hump in
road surface, in other words, enhancing ride comfort.

When a car rides over a hump, the springs are
compressed, store the energy thus provide shock
absorption. The energy will be released quickly when the
springs bounce back. Dampers are employed to smooth
and slow down the bounce motion, this is called
"Damping".

Without dampers, the car will bounce up and down
severely and quickly, this is perceived as uncomfortable

To achieve ride comfort, suspensions is created and let
the wheels movable with respect to the car body
Introduction
Inevitably, this create many problems in handling.

When the car is turning quickly into a bend, centrifugal force
will roll the car body.

Body roll leads to the weight transfer towards the outside
wheels, it also changes the suspensions geometry which
changes the camber angles of wheels.

Change of camber accompanies with weight transfer result in
unwanted understeering or oversteering.

If brakes are applied in the bend, castor angles will also be
changed, that may further deteriorated understeering /
oversteering or even introduces torque steer
Introduction
If a wheel is not perpendicular to the road, then it is cambered. If it leans
towards the center of the car, then it is negative cambered. If it leans
outwards to the car, it is positive cambered

When a wheel has positve camber, due to the elasticity of tyres, the wheel
will be reshaped to something like the base of a cone. It will have a tendency
to rotate about the peak of the cone, as shown in the picture. The wheel tries
to steer away from the center of the car

If both the right and left wheels are positive cambered (that means they lean
towards opposite directions), the steering tendency will be cancelled so that
the car remains running in straight line. If the car is turning into a corner,
body roll puts more weight on the outside wheels than the inside wheels, that
means the outside wheel's steering tendency will have more influence to the
car. As the positive-cambered outside wheel tries to steer the car to the
outside of the corner, the car will be understeered.

On the contrary, if both wheels are negative cambered, the car will oversteer.

Functions of suspension system
The suspension system is located between the wheel axles
and the vehicle body or frame

Provide vertical compliance so the wheels follow the uneven
road, isolating the chassis from roughness in the road

Maintain the wheels in the proper steer and camber
attitudes to the road surface

React to the control forces produced by the tires
longitudinal (acceleration and braking) forces, lateral
(cornering) forces and braking and driving torques

Resist roll of the chassis

Keep the tires in contact with the road with minimal load
variations
Function and basic components of a suspension system
Suspension Systems
It should include the springs and related
parts that supports the weight of the vehicle
on axles and wheels. Springs support the
weight of the vehicle and its load.

Shock absorbers control or dampen spring
action. Without it, spring oscillation would
happen.

These springs and shock absorbers may be
mechanically or electronically controlled.
Suspension Systems
Types of springs used : coil, leaf, torsion and
air.
Automotive Springs
Important properties for dynamics analysis
Kinematic (motion) behavior

Response to forces and moments that it
transmit from the tires to the chassis

Other characteristics cost, weight,
package space, manufacturability, ease of
assembly and others

Type of Suspension System
Generally fall into two groups:

Solid axles : Hotchkiss, Four Link, De Dion

Independents : Trailing Arm, SLA, MacPherson
Strut, Multi-Link, Swing Axle
Solid Axles
Wheels are mounted at either end of a rigid beam so that any
movement of one wheel is transmitted to the opposite wheel causing
them to steer and camber together

Used on the rear of many cars and most trucks and on the front of
many four-wheel-drive trucks where high load-carrying capacity is
required

Advantages :

wheel camber is not affected by body roll. There is little wheel camber in
cornering

wheel alignment is readily maintained, minimizing wear

Disadvantages :

susceptibility to tramp-shimmy steering vibrations

Solid axles - Hotchkiss
The basic Hotchkiss style is a direct carry over from horse drawn
buggies, improvements over the years have kept it as a viable
suspension design for certain applications

Axle is located by semi-elliptic leaf springs and driven through a
longitudinal driveshaft with universal joints at the transmission and
axle

Used of leaf springs simple and least
expensive, stiff in the lateral and
longitudinal directions

Widely used on the rear axle passenger
cars into the 1960s till now on most light
and heavy trucks

Advantages
Simplicity There are very few components in this suspension so
manufacturing and assembly efficiency along with robustness ate
maximized easily
Strength By adding extra leaves to the spring the stiffness of the
suspension in the longitudinal direction could be greatly increased
Control of Rear Axle Torsional Rotation When the shocks were
mounted one in front and one behind the axle, the twisting of the axle
during violent wheel hop could be completely controlled

Disadvantages
Weight Leaf springs are relatively very heavy when compared to a
more compact independent suspension design. This weight increases
the unsprung weight and hinders the ability of the wheels to follow the
road
Size Leaf springs are huge in comparison to a strut. Simply put
modern cars do not have room in the chassis to fit large cumbersome
leaf springs.
Solid axles Four Link
Evolved as the suspension of choice in
recent decades for the larger passenger
cars with solid rear-drive axles

Solid axles Four Link
Lower arm provide longitudinal control of
the axle while the upper arms absorb
braking/driving torques and lateral forces

The ability to use coil springs (or air
springs) to replace leaf springs provides
better ride and NVH by the elimination of
the coulomb friction characteristic of leaf
springs
Solid axles De Dion
Developed by Count de Dion in the 19th century

Consists of a cross tube between the two driving wheels with a
chassis-mounted differential and half-shafts

It has a sliding joint to permit wheel track variation during
suspension movement, this help refining ride quality too.

The DeDion tube keeps both wheels parallel to each other under all
conditions, so they are always perpendicular to the road surface
regardless of body roll

Solid axles De Dion
Driving wheels are attached to curved dead axle that is
attached to the frame by a central pivot

Differential unit is bolted to the frame and is connected to the
driving wheels by drive axles using Universal joints

The De Dion system keeps the wheels upright (the same as a
live axle does), but unspung weight is reduced because the
differential is out of the axle

De Dion suspension also leaves room around the differential
for inboard brakes, which can further reduce unspung weight

Live axle has too much unsprung weight, thus leads to
poor ride quality. Therefore many budget sports cars or
coupes chose DeDion Axle (rear) suspensions over live axle
Solid axles De Dion
Advantages
Still cheaper than most independent suspensions.
Body roll does not influence the camber of wheels.
Better ride quality than Live Axle.

Disadvantages
Non-independent, ride is still worse than independent
suspensions.
Both wheels cambered on bump.

Who use it ?
Caterham, Vector, Smart.
Independent Suspensions
Allow each wheel to move vertically without affecting the opposite
wheel

Nearly all passenger cars and light trucks use independent
suspensions

Advantages:

Providing room for the engine and because of the better resistance
to steering (wobble and shimmy) vibrations
Provides an inherently higher roll stiffness relative to the vertical
spring rate
Easy control of the roll center by choice of the geometry of the
control arms
Ability to control tread change with jounce and rebounce
Larger suspension deflections
Greater roll stiffness for a given suspension vertical rate
Independent Suspensions Trailing Arm Suspension
One of the most simple and economical
designs
Front : Parallel, equal length trailing arms connected at their
front ends to lateral torsion bars, which provide springing
Commonly used in nearly all mid-price to high-price sedans before
multi-link rear suspension became popular in 1990s.

Note that it only allows the wheel to move up and down to deal with
bump. Any lateral movement and camber change (with respect to
the car body) is not allowed

Nevertheless, when the car rolls into a corner, the trailing arm rolls
for the same degree as the car body, thus changes camber angle
(with respect to the road surface)

Both wheels lean towards the outside of the corner, thus lead to
understeer

Advantage : All round, few weakness

Disadvantage : Less refined than multi-link

Application : Many sedans and coupes
Trailing-Arm / Semi-Trailing Arm Rear Suspension

Reducing unsprung
weight by mounting the
differential on the body
Produces a steering effect
as the wheels move in
jounce and rebound
Independent Suspensions SLA front suspension
The upper and lower control arms are usually of unequal
length

The arms are often called A-arms [in United States] or
wishbones [in Britain]

Well adapted to front-engine, rear-wheel-drive cars because of
the package space it provides for the engine oriented in the
longitudinal direction

Camber geometry of an unequal-arm system can improved
camber at the outside wheel by counteracting camber due to
body roll, but less-favorable camber at inside wheel

Equal length parallel arms eliminate the unfavorable
condition on the inside wheel but at the loss of camber
compensation on the outside wheel
SLA - Double wishbones suspension
Basically, double wishbones suspension always maintains the wheel
perpendicular to the road surface, irrespective of the wheel's movement. This
ensure good handling.

Traditional double wishbones consists of 2 parellel wishbone arms of equal
length, which has the drawback of excessive tire scrubbing because of the
large variation in track width as the wheel moved off the neutral position

Therefore engineers developed unequal-length non-parellel A-arms to solve
this. By tilting the upper A-arm, anti-dive function is also achieved.

Independent Suspensions SLA front suspension
http://www.arengineers.com/RollCenter/We
bRollCenter.aspx for roll center calculation
Popular versions of double wishbone
Double wishbones suspension
Double wishbone suspension
Advantage:
Ideal camber control leads to good handling

Disadvantage:
Space engaging and costly

Who use it ?
American sports cars and some sedans, most
European pure sports cars like Ferrari, TVR, Lotus ....
some Euopean sedans, most Honda .... many many
many.
Independent Suspensions MacPherson Strut
Invented in the 1940s by Earl S. MacPherson of Ford

Introduced on the 1950 English Ford and has since become one of the
dominating suspensions systems of the world because of its compactness
and low cost

Strut a telescopic member incorporating damping with the wheel rigidly
attached at its lower end, such that the strut maintains the wheel in the
camber direction

It saves the upper control arm

Upper end is fixed to the body shell or chassis

Lower end is located by linkages which pick up the lateral and
longitudinal forces

Body roll and wheel's movement lead to variation in camber, although
not as severe as swing axle suspension

can be adopted in both front and rear wheels
Advantages

Simple design
Package space for transverse engines widely used for front-
wheel-drive cars
Separation of the connection points on the body well-suited to
vehicles with unibody construction
Fewer parts and capability to spread the suspension loads to the
body structure over a wider area
The strut is vertically positioned, the whole suspension is very
compact and cheap

Disadvantages

Average handling
Relatively high overall height requires a higher hood and fender
line, which is not very desirable to sports cars' styling
Independent Suspensions Multi-Link Rear Suspension
Multi-link is characterized by ball-joint connections at the ends of the
linkages so that they do not experience bending moments

Four links are required to provide longitudinal and lateral control of
the wheels and react brake torques

Five links additional link over-constrains the wheel, but capitalizes
on compliances in the bushings to allow more accurate control of toe
angles in cornering

Use of linkages provides flexibility for designer to
achieve the wheel motions desired

Advantage: Good handling and ride

Disadvantage: Not as cheap and as compact as
MacPherson and Torsion beam
Independent Suspensions Swing Axle
Easiest way to get independent rear suspension

Most notable application Volkswagen Beetle
for good ride

Camber behavior is established entirely by the
axle shafts pivoting at the U-joint adjacent to the
differential

Small swing radius cause large camber change

Difficult to get consistent cornering performance
Independent Suspensions Swing Axle
Outside tire
more heavily
loaded (greater
cornering force
Inside tire
attempts to lift the
vehicle such that
the wheels tuck
under
Jacking phenomenon effect of elevating the
vehicle body (reducing its rollover resistance) and
causing loss of cornering force on the axle due to
camber thrust vehicle spin out and serious
directional control problems
Anti-Squat and Anti-Pitch Suspension Geometry
Remember the weight transfer during acceleration?
L
h
g
a
W W
L
h
g
a
L
b
W W
x
rs
x
r
+ =
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
Dynamic load is increased at the rear wheels due to
longitudinal weight transfer
The weight is transfer to the axle and wheels principally
through the suspension
Thus implied compression (jounce) in the rear suspension
Squat/power Squat
Associated rebound in the front suspension
Rear jounce + front rebound = vehicle pitch
Suspension systems may be designed to counteract the
weight transfer and minimize squat and pitch
Anti-Squat and Anti-Pitch
Anti-dive and anti-squat are percentages and refer to the
front diving under braking and the rear squatting under
acceleration. They can be thought of as the counterparts for
braking and acceleration as jacking forces are to cornering.
The main reason for the difference is due to the different
design goals between front and rear suspension, whereas
suspension is usually symmetrical between the left and
right of the vehicle.

The method of determining the anti-dive or anti-squat
depends on whether the suspension linkages react to the
torque of braking and accelerating

Equivalent Trailing Arm Analysis :

Assume all suspensions are functionally equivalent to a trailing arm with
regard to the reaction of forces and moments onto the vehicle
0 cos P - z F
0 sin P - sin P F
0 cos P - cos P F
1 1 1 2 x
2 2 1 1 z
2 2 1 1 x
=
=
= +
z u
u u
u u
Writing Newtonss Second
Law for horizontal, vertical
and moments at point o
After solving all the geometry equations,
d
e
F
F
x
z
=
Identical to that which would be obtained if the
control arms were replaced with a single
(trailing) arm pivoting on the body at the
projected intersection of the control arm axes
Imaginary pivot on
the vehicle body
Resisting axle windup : Ability to
transmit vertical force to the
sprung mass counteract squat
Anti-squat
Geometry that produces an instant center through which
acceleration forces can act to reduce or eliminate
drive wheel spring deflection during acceleration

The path through which the tractive force (F
x
) must act is
along a line drawn between the tire footprint and the
instant center. This path carries horizontal (F
Xa
) and
vertical (F
Za
) components of force.

Instants centers
Instant center locations, projected onto the
longitudinal axis of the vehicle, provide the
location where the forces transmitted during
acceleration, effectively act.

The resultant horizontal and vertical components
of the tractive force, transmitted through these
instant centers, DETERMINE THE PERCENT
(%) OF THE WEIGHT TRANSFER THAT ACTS
THROUGH THE SUSPENSION LINKAGES, with
the remaining acting through the suspension
springs.
Equation which indicates the relationships for 100% anti-squat.

The angle the instant center (I.C.) must lie on for 100% anti-squat is

If the Tan < h/L then squat will occur.
d
e
=
L
h
L
h
=
d
e
= | Tan
**The percentage of anti-squat is now determined relative
to the 100% (h/L) line**
Anti-Dive Suspension System
Longitudinal load transfer incidental to braking
acts to pitch the vehicle forward brake dive

Anti-dive (Anti-lift)
Geometry that produces an instant center through
which braking forces can act to reduce or eliminate
spring deflection during deceleration.

Anti-dive is usually designed into both front and rear
suspensions.
brake) rear (% L
h
=
d
e
=
-
| Tan
L
h
=
d
e
= | Tan
|
.
|
\
|
-
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
L
h
g
a
W brake rear
r
% %
Rear Anti-Dive/Anti-Squat Geometry
brake) rear (% L
h
=
d
e
=
-
| Tan
|
.
|
\
|
-
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
L
h
g
a
W brake rear
r
% %
brake) front (% L
h
=
d
e
=
-
| Tan
|
.
|
\
|
-
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
L
h
g
a
W brake front
f
% %
The angle of the line the instant center (I.C.) must lie on for 100%
anti-dive in the front and rear suspension
Anti-Dive/Anti-Squat Geometry
The main reason for the difference is due to the different
design goals between front and rear suspension, whereas
suspension is usually symmetrical between the left and right of
the vehicle.

An Anti-dive ratio of 50% would mean the force vector under
braking crosses half way between the ground and the center of
gravity.

Anti-squat is equivalent to Anti-dive and is for the rear
suspension under acceleration.

Anti-dive and Anti-squat may or may not be desirable depending
on the suspension design.
Anti-Dive/Anti-Squat Geometry
Independent suspension using multiple
control arms can be an issue if the percentage
is too high (say over 30%)

A percentage of 100% in this case would
indicate the suspension is taking 100% of the
weight transfer under braking instead of the
springs

This effectively binds the suspension and
turns the independent suspension into no
suspension like a go-cart
Maximum anti-dive seldom exceeds 50%, because

Full anti-dive required pivot point above the full anti-squat

Cause flat stops undesirable

Front suspension castor angle changes may increase steering
effort during braking

Complex steering system geometry

For rear suspension, overstreer may be created by the high
location of the pivot

NVH performance may be compromised
L
h
g
a
W
x
Roll Center Analysis
Roll Center Point or location at which
lateral forces developed by the wheels are
transmitted to the sprung mass.

Affects the behavior of both the sprung and
unsprung masses influences cornering

Each suspension has a suspension roll
center point in the transverse vertical
plane through the wheel centers at which
lateral forces may be applied to the
sprung mass without producing
suspension roll

Roll axis instantaneous axis about which
the unsprung mass rotates with respect to
the sprung mass when a pure couple is
applied to the unsprung mass

instantaneous axes location of the axis
is only accurate in the absence of roll

Body roll occurs the change in geometry of
most suspensions will cause the center to
migrate, and thus it is not a true center

Concept is valid for purpose of establishing
where the forces are reacted on the sprung
mass for analyzing behavior in the lateral
plane
The roll axis height and angularity within
the vehicle coordinate system are
suspension position dependent.

Roll axis height determines the amount of
lateral weight transfer that is distributed
through the suspension springs and
dampers compared to the amount that is
transferred through the geometry
Roll center analysis of a four link rear
suspension
Roll center analysis of a MacPherson
Strut suspension
**intersection of the suspension roll axis with the vertical plane through
the centers of the two wheels**

Different between passive and active suspension systems
Passive suspensions refer to traditional
springs and dampers

Semi-active or active suspension when the
suspension is externally controlled

Semi-active suspensions include devices
such as air springs and switchable shock
absorbers, various self-leveling solutions, as
well as systems like Hydropneumatic,
Hydrolastic and Hydragas suspensions
For example, a hydropneumatic Citron will
"know" how far off the ground the car is
supposed to be and constantly reset to
achieve that level, regardless of load.

It will not instantly compensate for body roll
due to cornering however. Citron's system
adds about 1% to the cost of the car versus
passive steel springs
Fully active suspensions - Use electronic monitoring of
vehicle conditions, coupled with the means to impact
vehicle suspension and behavior in real time to directly
control the motion of the car

With the help of control system, various semi-
active/active suspensions could realize an improved
design compromise among different vibrations modes of
the vehicle, namely bounce, roll, pitch (dive and squat)
and warp (deform) modes.

However, the applications of these advanced
suspensions are constrained by the cost, packaging,
weight, reliability, and/or the other challenges, thus only
available on luxurious vehicles
Active suspension
Active Suspension
Chapter 8 : The Steering Systems
By
Dr. Gan Leong Ming
Introduction
Has an influences on the directional response
behavior of a motor vehicle

Function is to steer the front wheels in response
to driver command inputs

May be powered or manual

Basically there are 2 types :

Rack-and-pinion steering gear
Recirculating-ball steering gear
The Steering Linkages
Vary widely in design but functionally quite
similar
The Steering Linkages In general
Steering wheel shafts
Universal joints
Vibrations isolators
Steering gearbox to transform rotary
motion to translational motion
The Steering Linkages
Gearbox is the primary means for
numerical reduction between the
rotational input from the steering
wheel and rotational output about
steer axis

Nominal ratio : 15 to 1 for passenger
car, 36 to 1 for heavy truck

Lateral translational from the
gearbox is relayed through linkages
to steering arms on the left and right
wheels

Usually not a parallelogram (equal
angle for left and right wheels) but
rather trapezoid to more closely
approximate Ackerman geometry
The Steering Linkages Rack-and-pinion Steering
The most common type of steering on cars, small trucks and SUVs

Simple mechanism.

A rack-and-pinion gearset is enclosed in a metal tube, with each end
of the rack protruding from the tube. A rod, called a tie rod, connects
to each end of the rack

The pinion gear is attached to the steering shaft. When the steering
wheel is turn, the gear spins, moving the rack. The tie rod at each
end of the rack connects to the steering arm on the spindle

The rack-and-pinion gearset does two things:

It converts the rotational motion of the steering wheel into the
linear motion needed to turn the wheels.

It provides a gear reduction, making it easier to turn the wheels.
On most cars, it takes three to four complete revolutions
of the steering wheel to make the wheels turn from lock to
lock (from far left to far right).

Generally, lighter, sportier cars have lower steering ratios
than larger cars and trucks

The lower ratio gives the steering a quicker response

These smaller cars are light enough that even with the
lower ratio, the effort required to turn the steering wheel is
not excessive

Rack and pinion steering gear,
rack end and tie rods
Steering knuckles
The Steering Linkages Recirculating-ball Steering

Used on many trucks and SUVs today

The linkage that turns the wheels is slightly different than on a rack-
and-pinion system.

The recirculating-ball steering gear contains a worm gear

One part is a block of metal with a threaded hole in it. This block has
gear teeth cut into the outside of it, which engage a gear that moves
the pitman arm

The steering wheel connects to a threaded rod, similar to a bolt, that
sticks into the hole in the block

When the steering wheel turns, it turns the bolt

Instead of twisting further into the block the way a regular bolt would,
this bolt is held fixed so that when it spins, it moves the block, which
moves the gear that turns the wheels.

Instead of the bolt directly engaging the threads
in the block, all of the threads are filled with ball
bearings that recirculate through the gear as it
turns

The balls actually serve two purposes:

They reduce friction and wear in the gear

They reduce slop in the gear. Slop would be felt when
you change the direction of the steering wheel --
without the balls in the steering gear, the teeth would
come out of contact with each other for a moment,
making the steering wheel feel loose
Power Steering System
As vehicles have become heavier and switched to front wheel drive,
the effort to turn the steering wheel manually has increased

The hydraulic power steering system pressurizes the power-steering
fluid. Steering would cause the control valve to open and close to
provide pressurized fluid in or out of the power cylinder, thus moving
the piston and aids the steering.

This system requires the power steering pump, hoses & fittings, fluid
cooler, power-steering fluid and also the power-steering pressure
switch (signals engine ECM to raise idling speed when starts
pressurizing

There are three types of power steering systems
Hydraulic
Electric/Electronic
Hydraulic-electric hybrid system possible

A hydraulic power steering (HPS)

Uses hydraulic pressure supplied by an engine-driven pump to assist
the motion of turning the steering wheel.

Electric power steering (EPS)

More efficient than the hydraulic power steering, since the electric
power steering motor only needs to provide assist when the steering
wheel is turned, whereas the hydraulic pump must run constantly

In EPS the assist level is easily tunable to the vehicle type, road
speed, and even driver preference

An added benefit is the elimination of environmental hazard posed by
leakage and disposal of hydraulic power steering fluid
1.Hydraulic pump
2.Oil Reservoir
3.Hydraulic Cylinder
4.Steering Arm Link
5.Cylinder Actuator
6.Cylinder Mounting Bracket
7-8.Hoses,Clamps,Bolts
Power Steering System - HPS
Hydraulic pressure is usually provide by a gear motor or
rotary vane pump driven by the vehicles engine

Double acting hydraulic cylinder applies a force to the
steering gear, which in turn applies a torque to the steering
axis of the road wheels. The flow to the cylinder is controlled
by valves operated by the steering wheel

There are several common valve systems of varying
complexity, but they all allow the steering wheel to turn
further than is necessary to simply open a valve.

This is done so that the position of the steering wheel
corresponds to the position of the vehicles wheels.
As the pumps employed are of the positive displacement type, the flow rate
they deliver is directly proportional to the speed of the engine

This means that at high engine speeds the steering would naturally operate
faster than at low engine speeds

Because this would be undesirable, a restricting orifice and flow control
valve are used to direct some of the pumps output back to the hydraulic
reservoir at high engine speeds.

A pressure relief valve is also used to prevent a dangerous build up pressure
when the hydraulic cylinders piston reaches the end of the cylinder

Some modern implementations also include an electronic pressure relief
valve which can reduce the hydraulic pressure in the power steering lines as
the vehicle's speed increases (this is known as variable assist power
steering)
Power Steering System - EPS
Designed to use an electric motor to reduce effort by providing assist to
the driver of a vehicle

Most EPS systems have variable assist, which allows for more assistance
as the speed of a vehicle decreases and less assistance from the system
during high speed situations

This functionality requires a delicate balance of power and control that
has only been available to manufacturers in recent years.

So far limited to passenger cars, as a higher voltage electrical system is
necessary to operate EPS in larger vehicle

Do not require a hydraulic pump, which is belted into the engine
Rather the systems electric motor is powered by the vehicles alternator
which is belted into the engine, EPS motor only needs to provide assist
when the steering wheel is turned, whereas the hydraulic pump must run
constantly

The efficiency advantage of an EPS system is derived from the fact that it
is activated only when needed. Thus, a vehicle equipped with EPS may
achieve an estimated improvement in fuel economy of 3% compared to the
same vehicle with conventional HPS

In EPS the assist level is easily tunable to the vehicle type, road speed,
and even driver preference

An added benefit is the elimination of environmental hazard posed by
leakage and disposal of hydraulic power steering fluid
Power steering system
Power steering system and rack and pinion
Electronic power steering
Steering Geometry Error
Steering action is achieved by translational
displacement of the relay linkage in the
presence of arbitrary suspension motions

Steering geometry errors steering action
arise from suspension motions (without
moving the steering wheel)

Ideal steering geometry no interaction on
an independent front suspension
**When wheel jounce and rebound (down and up)
no translational motion in wheels
Follow up and
down according to
a specific arc
Determine by CAD, based
on the knuckle location
Not always possible to achieve this ideal
because of packaging problems,
nonlinearities in the suspension motion

Steering geometry ERROR result in a
change in toe angle with suspension
deflections
Steering Geometry Error Case 1 (Toe change)
Arc center at the
inboard joint of the
relay linkage (tie rod)
View from rear
View from top
A) When wheel
jounce or rebound
B) Relay arm move
inboard
C) Toe out
angle error
resulted
Steering Geometry Error Case 1 (Toe change)
As a result, proper toe angle is difficult to
maintain cause the toe error is dependent
on the front axle load

Could resulting body roll (cause
understeer or oversteer) during cornering
cause toe angle change during cornering
Steering Geometry Error Case 2 (Body roll)
Maybe used intentionally to alter handling behavior
Arc center located below
the ideal center
View from rear
Condition 1 View from top
B) Left hand steer
A) Wheel move
jounce (down)
If view from FRONT, direction
of travel will be symmetrical
Maybe used intentionally to alter handling behavior
Arc center located below
the ideal center
View from rear
Condition 2 View from top
B) Right hand steer
A) Wheel move
rebound (up)
If view from FRONT, direction
of travel will be symmetrical
Consider during cornering to the right,
which cause body roll to the left
Left wheel jounce (rear view) left hand steer
Right wheel rebound (front view) left hand
steer
As a result, understeer occur

If the Arc center located above
the ideal center, oversteer will
occur during cornering because of
body roll
Four Wheel Steer
A system employed by some vehicles to increase vehicle
stability while maneuvering at high speed, or to decrease
turning radius at low speed

In most active four-wheel steering systems, the rear
wheels are steered by a computer and actuators

The rear wheels generally cannot turn as far as the front
wheels

This allows the vehicle to turn in a significantly smaller
radius sometimes critical for large trucks or vehicles
with trailers
Four Wheel Steer
Low-speed Turning :

Improved by steering the rear wheels
out-of-phase with the front wheels to
reduce the turn radius, thus improving
maneuverability

High-speed Turning :

Out-of-phase rear is impropriate
because the outward movement of the
rear wheels would constitute an
oversteer influence

In-phase rear steer is used, although
limited to a few degrees of steer
Four Wheel Steer
4WS systems yield a quicker response
with better damping of the yaw
oscillation

Body sideslip angle can be randomly
reduced in cornering adds the
general feeling of better stability during
transient maneuvers
Steer by wire
The aim of steer-by-wire technology is to completely do away
with as many mechanical components (steering shaft, column,
gear reduction mechanism, etc.) as possible

Steer-by-wire holds several advantages, such as:

Simplifies the car interior design

Allows much better space utilization in the engine compartment

The steering mechanism can be designed and installed as a
modular unit

The impact of a frontal crash will not force the steering wheel to
interrupt the driver's survival space

Steering system characteristics can easily and infinitely be adjusted
to optimize the steering response and feel
Safety
For safety reasons all modern cars
feature a collapsible steering column
(energy absorbing steering column)
which will collapse in the event of a
heavy frontal impact to avoid excessive
injuries to the driver

Collapsible steering columns were
invented by Bela Barenyi
Alignment angles of the front wheels
Wheel Alignment

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BMA4723 Vehicle Dynamics

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