Measurement System Behaviour

Instrumentation and Sensors Prof XiaoQi Chen
2-1
2. Measurement System Behaviour
Static Specifications

Dynamic Specifications and Analysis
Measurement System Model
Zero-order sensors
First-order sensors
Second-order sensors
2-2
STATIC SPECIFICATIONS
Sensor specifications
2-3
Static Specifications
The properties of the system after all transient
effects have settled to their final or steady state.

Resolution
Precision
Accuracy
Errors: systematic errors, random errors
Sensitivity
Hysteresis
Drift
Linearity
Range
Others
2-4
Resolution
The minimal change of the measurand value necessary to produce a detectable
change at the output.
Resolution depends on mechatronic applications
In motion control, position is often measured using an optical encoder, which
output in counts. A 1000-count encoder means that the encoder will output
1000 counts in one complete revolution without interpolation.
In vision systems, which resolution is given in the pixel counts in the horizontal
and vertical direction, e.g. A 768 x 576 CCD camera, and typically, the intensity
of each pixel is 0 to 255 for a grey-level camera.

2-5
Resolution
Resolution due to quantization (ADC)
The smallest change in the analog input is determined by the number of bits in
ADC, e.g. 8-bit resolution means there are 256 steps in the output. Note: both
Full-Scale/2^n and FS / (2^n-1) appear in difference references book. (ref to
the course reading paper). The difference is negligible when ADC has a good
resolution.
E.g., a voltage sensor with analog-to-digital convertor outputs an 8-bit number
for 0 to 5 V, resolution of 20 mV

mV 20
255
5
1 2
5
8
~ =

2-6
Precision
The capacity of a measuring instrument to give the same reading
when repetitively measuring the same quantity under the same
prescribed conditions
Precision implies agreement between successive readings, NOT
closeness to the true value.
Precision is related to the variance of a set of measurements
Random error of sensor with mean and standard deviation
Ratio of sensors output range to standard deviation

impacts precision
Precision is a necessary but not sufficient condition for accuracy
o
range
precision =
2-7
Precision
Two terms closely related to precision
Repeatability
The closeness of agreement between successive measurements carried
out under the same conditions.
The precision of a set of measurements taken over a short time
interval
Repeatability error Measure of variation in the output, related to
standard deviation S
x

where r
o
is the output range.
Reproducibility
The precision of a set of measurements BUT
taken over a long time interval or
performed by different operators or
with different instruments or
in different laboratories

100
2
%
max
=
o
x
R
r
S
e
2-8
Accuracy
Accuracy - Degree of conformity between a measured value and
true value
Small error corresponds to high accuracy

Obtaining ground truth v can be difficult or impossible
Absolute accuracy
A measure of the closeness of agreement between a measured value
and that of a primary standard value
Relative accuracy
A measure of the closeness of agreement between a measured value
and that of a locally established reference value

v
error
accuracy =1
2-9
5 5
5
2
Resolution, Precision, Accuracy

1
4
Resolution Precision Accuracy
High High High
High High Low
Low High Low
Low Low Low
1
1
2
2
2
1
4
4
5
4
2-10
Errors
Variations in measurements: observed
scatter in data
Related to random error
Offset of average of readings and true
value, a measure of systematic error
Absolute error
Difference between measured value m
and true value v, error = m-v
Relative error
Absolute error / True value
Uncertainty Estimate of the effects of
errors on results
Result of random and systematic errors,
calibration, standard

2-11
Systematic Errors
Systematic error Caused by factors or processes that can in
theory be modeled
Deterministic (predictable)
E.g., poor calibration, bent stereo camera head

Result from a variety of factors
Interfering or modifying variables (i.e., temperature)
Drift (i.e., changes in chemical structure or mechanical stresses)
The measurement process changes the measurand (i.e., loading errors)
The transmission process changes the signal (i.e., attenuation)
Human observers (i.e., parallax errors)

Systematic errors can be corrected with compensation methods
(i.e., feedback, filtering)

2-12
Random Errors (Noise)
Also called noise: a signal that is inherently unpredictable
Cannot be predicted using a model, cannot be mitigated
A random test
applies a random order in the values of a known input over the
intended calibration range.
White noise
A random signal with a flat power spectral density. In other words,
the signal contains equal power within a fixed bandwidth at any
centre frequency.
Described in probabilistic terms: Gaussian, Poisson, etc
Gaussian white noise - (normal) distribution

2-13
Random Errors
Also called noise: a signal that is inherently unpredictable
Cannot be predicted using a model, cannot be mitigated
White noise
A random signal with a flat power spectral density. In other words,
the signal contains equal power within a fixed bandwidth at any
centre frequency.
Described in probabilistic terms: Gaussian, Poisson, etc
white Gaussian noise - (normal) distribution

2-14
Random Errors
Pink noise or 1/ noise (sometimes also called flicker noise)
a signal or process with a frequency spectrum such that the power
spectral density (energy or power per Hz) is inversely proportional to
the frequency.
Red (Brown) noise
Its spectral density is inversely proportional to f, meaning it has
more energy at lower frequencies, even more so than pink noise.
2-15
Random Errors
Signal to noise ratio (SNR) should be >>1
With knowledge of the signal patterns it may be possible to interpret
a signal with a low SNR (i.e., understanding speech in a loud
environment)
Sources of randomness:
Repeatability of the measurand itself (i.e., height of a rough surface)
Environmental noise (i.e., background noise picked up by a
microphone)
Transmission noise (i.e., 50Hz hum)

2-16
Sensitivity
Sensitivity
The ratio of the change in sensor output to the change in the value of
the measurand. It is the slope of the calibration curve outlining the
relationship between input x and output y

A measure relating the change in the indicated output associated with
a given change in a static input.
For linear sensor output y = kx, the sensitivity equals the gain k
An ideal sensor will have a large and constant sensitivity.
Example
Consider a capacitive sensor used to measure the displacement x.

What is the sensor sensitivity?

1
) ( ) (
1 x x
dx
dy
x K
=
=
Example
Consider a capacitive sensor used to measure the displacement x.

What is the sensor sensitivity?
x
A
C
r 0
c c
=
2-17
Sensitivity-related errors
Saturation
At some levels of the input stimuli, its output no longer will be
responsive. Further increase in stimulus does not produce a desirable
output (i.e., no change observed in output). It is said that the sensor
has reached the span-end nonlinearity or saturation
Dead band
The insensitivity or inactivation of a sensor in a specific range of input
signals (i.e., output = 0)

2-18
temperature
Scale
reading
Nominal
characteristic
Characteristic with
zero drift
temperature
Scale
reading
Nominal
characteristic
Characteristic with
sensitivity drift
temperature
Scale
reading
Nominal
characteristic
Characteristic with
zero drift & sensitivity drift
A) Zero drift B) Sensitivity drift C) Zero drift plus sensitivity drift
Drift
Zero Drift (offset)
the zero reading of a sensor is modified by a change in ambient
conditions. It can be removed by re-calibration.
Sensitivity Drift or Scale Factor Drift
Define the amount by which a sensor sensitivity varies as ambient
conditions change.
2-19
Hysteresis
Hysteresis
A deviation of the sensors output at a specified point of the input
signal when the point is approached from opposite directions
E.g. magnetization in ferromagnetic materials; backlash: hysteresis
caused by looseness in a mechanical joint
A sequential test
It applies a sequential variation in the input value over the desired
input range. This may be accomplished by increasing the input value
(upscale direction) or by decreasing the input value (downscale
direction) over the full input range.

Hysteresis loop: magnetization (M) as
function of magnetic field strength (H)
Hysteresis identified by a
sequential test
2-20
Hysteresis Error
Difference between an upscale sequential test and a downscale
sequential test: e
h
= y
upscale
y
downscale

Hysteresis is usually specified as a relative hysteresis error.

Hysteresis occurs when the output of a measurement system is
dependent on the previous value indicated by the system due to
realistic system limitations such as friction or viscous damping in
moving parts or residual charge in electrical system
100
) (
100 %
max
max
max

= =
o
downscale upscale
o
h
h
r
y y
r
e
e
2-21
Linearity
Linearity Plot of sensors input and output response is linear
If inputs x and y result in outputs f(x) and f(y)
Then for any a and b
The closeness of the calibration curve to a specified straight line
(i.e., theoretical behaviour, least-squares fit), normally desired
Nonlinearity, a measure of the deviation of the two curves, usually
expressed as a percentage of span
Most sensors should have good linearity around the typical operating
point which is usually in the middle of the span
Nonlinearities often manifested as some peculiar specifications, such
as saturation and hysteresis
2-22
Linearity Error
Difference between measured value y(x) and linear curve fit
y
L
(x).
Expressed as a % of FSO

Nonlinearity in a Ultrasonic Sensor
100 %
) ( ) (
) (
max
max
) (
1 0
=
=
+ =
o
L
L
x L L
L
r
e
e
y x y x e
x a a x y
2-23
Types of Errors
Overall error: square root of the sum of squares
of all known errors.
2 / 1
1
2
) (
=
=
M
i
i c
e u
2-24
Range
Range (Span)
A dynamic range of stimuli which may be converted by a sensor
Represents the highest possible input which can be applied to the
sensor without causing unacceptably large inaccuracy
Full Scale Output, or FSO
The algebraic difference between the electrical output signals
measured with maximum input stimulus and the lowest input stimulus
applied.

Dynamic range
Measure of spread between the lower and upper limits of input
values to the sensor while maintaining normal operation
Ratio of maximum input value to minimum input value
Measured in decibels (10 times the common logarithm)
E.g., sensor for motor current between 1 mA to 20 Amps

dB 43
001 . 0
20
log 10 =
|
.
|
\
|
min max
y y r FSO
o
= =
2-25
Other Static Specifications
Sensitivity to Disturbance
All calibrations and specifications of a sensor are only valid under
controlled conditions of temperature, pressure, humidity, etc
Sensitivity to Disturbance is a measure of the magnitude of change of
sensor output with respect to the change in ambient conditions
Cross-Sensitivity
Sensitivity to environmental parameters orthogonal to the target
parameters
E.g., a flux-gate compass sensitive to ferrous building materials and
not useful indoors
Generally undesirable
Output impedance
Important for proper interface between the sensor and the interface
electronic circuit
2-26
Example - specifications for a typical
pressure sensor
(Full Scale Output)
Know measurement uncertainties when the errors are inherent !
2-27
DYNAMIC SPECIFICATIONS AND ANALYSIS
Zero order sensors
First order sensors
Second order sensors

2-28
Dynamic Specifications and Analysis
The properties of the system transient response to an input
Dealing with sensor response to varying input signals
Originating from the presence of energy-storing elements in the
sensor
Inertial: masses, inductances
Capacitances: thermal, electrical

2-29
Dynamic specifications and analysis
Determined by analyzing the response of the sensor to various
inputs
Impulse, step, ramp, sinusoidal, white noise

Sensor response can be characterised by
speed, e.g. rise time, delay time or peak time
parameters that represent damping, e.g. overshoot, settling time, or
steady-state error

2-30
(input-x, output-y)
The dynamic response of the sensor is (typically) assumed to be
linear
Sensor modelled as a constant-coefficient linear differential
equation. Sensor output y is related to sensor input x:

Zero (k=0), first (k=1) and second (k=2) order systems are
considered in practice
Laplace transform results in a transfer function relating input and
output

) ( ) (
) ( ) ( ) (
0 1
2
2
2
t x t y a
dt
t dy
a
dt
t y d
a
dt
t y d
a
k
k
k
= + + + +
) ( ) ( ) (
0 1
2
2
s X s Y a s a s a s a
k
k
= + + + +
0 1
2
2
1
) (
) (
) (
a s a s a s a s X
s Y
s G
k
k
+ + + +
= =

2-31
Zero-order sensors
Input and output are related by an equation of
the type

k is call the static sensitivity or steady gain of
the system
Zero-order is the desirable response of a sensor
No delays
Infinite bandwidth
The sensor only changes the amplitude of the input
signal
Zero-order systems do not include energy-storing
elements
Example of a zero-order sensor
A potentiometer used to measure linear and rotary
displacements

y = Kx
2-32
Zero-order sensors
Example
A pencil-type pressure gauge commonly used
to measure tire pressure. The sliding piston
restrained by an internal spring of stiffness,
k.
At static equilibrium the absolute pressure
force, F, bearing on the piston equals the
force exerted on the piston by the spring, F
s
,
plus the atmosphere pressure force, F
atm
.
Pencil-style pressure gauge
Free body diagram
) )( / (
0
atm
atm atm
p p k A y
Ap Ap F F ky
F
=
= =
=

2-33
First-order sensors
Inputs and outputs related by a first-order differential equation

Re-arrange:

where t=a
1
/a
0
. t is called the time constant of the system, a
measure of the speed of the system response.

First-order sensors have one element that stores energy and one
that dissipates it.

1 ) (
) (
) (
+
= =
s
K
s X
s Y
s G
t
) ( ) (
) (
t Kx t y
dt
t dy
= + t
2-34
First-order sensors step function input
X(t) = AU(t), where U(t) is a unit step function and A is the amplitude of
the step function.

Then, for t > 0
+

With an arbitrary initial condition denoted by y(0) = y
0
. Solving the
equation yields

+
> =
s =
0 t ) (
0 t 0 ) (
A t x
t x
KA t y
dt
t dy
= + ) (
) (
t
t /
0
) ( ) (
t
e KA y KA t y

+ =
Time
response
Steady
response
Transient
response
2-35
First-order sensors
step input
As t approaches infinity, y
approaches KA.
Re-write the response equation in
the form:

The term I(t) is called the error
fraction of the output signal.
A time equivalent to 2.3t is
required to achieve 90% of the
applied step input for a first-order
system.
t /
0
) (
) (
t
e
y y
y t y
t

= I The time response

The error function
2-36
First-order sensors- example
Suppose a bulb thermometer originally indicating 20
o
C is suddenly
exposed to a fluid temperature of 37
o
C. Develop a model that
simulates the thermometer response. To keep things simpler
assuming the following
No installation effects (neglect conduction and radiation effects)
Sensor mass is mass of liquid in bulb only
Uniform temperature within bulb (lumped mass)
Thermometer scale is calibrated to indicate temperature.
Solution
The rate at which energy is exchanged between the sensor and its
environment through convection, dot(Q)
The storage of energy within the thermometer: dE/dt
The conservation of energy is written as
-
= Q
dt
dE
2-37
First-order sensors- example
where
m = mass of liquid within thermometer
c
v
= specific heat of liquid within thermometer
h = convection heat transfer coefficient between
bulb and environment
A
s
= thermometer surface area
Hence

re-written as:

Noting the initial condition

)] ( [
) (
t T T hA T hA Q
dt
t dT
mc
dt
dE
s s v
= A = =

-
)] ( [
) (
t T T hA
dt
t dT
mc
s v
=

= + T t T
dt
t dT
hA
mc
s
v
) (
) (
C T C T = =

37 re temperatu state steady and ; 20
0
C] [ 17 37 ) (
/
=
t t
e t T
What is the time constant?
How sensor parameters affect the
sensor response?
2-38
First-order sensors sine function input
et e
et
e
e e e
et e
et
e t
e
t
t
1
2
/
0
1
2
/
tan ) (
) ( 1 (
) (
)] ( sin[ ) ( ) (
written - re , y on depends C where
) tan sin(
) ( 1 (
) (
sin ) (
) (
sin ) (

= u
+
=
u + + =
+
+ =
= +
=
KA
B
t B Ce t y
t
KA
Ce t y
t KA t y
dt
t dy
t A t x
t
t
Where B represents the amplitude of the
steady response and u represents the phase
shift. The phase shift causes time delay
time of units in delay time the ,
) (
where
)] ( sin[ ) ( ) (
1
1
/
e
e
|
| e e
t
u
=
+ + =

t B Ce t y
t
Relationship between a sinusoidal
input and the sensor output
2-39
First-order sensors
sine function input
Define magnitude ratio, M, as the ratio of
the output signal amplitude to the input
signal amplitude

For the first-order system, the frequency
bandwidth is defined traditionally as the
frequency band over which M>0.707; in
terms of the decibel:

It is the band of frequencies within which
M remains above -3 dB
The functions M and u represent the
frequency response of the measurement
system to periodic inputs
2
) ( 1 (
1 ) (
) (
et
e
e
+
= =
KA
B
M
) ( log 20 e M dB =
2-40
First Order Sensors
Example

A temperature sensor is to be selected to measure temperature within
a reaction vessel. It is suspected that the temperature will behave as a
simple period waveform with a frequency somewhere between 1 and 5
Hz. Consider the sensor as a first-order system and assume that a
dynamic error of +/2% is acceptable. Select a sensor with a suitable
time constant.
2-41
Inputs and outputs are related by a second-order differential
equation

We can express this second-order transfer function as

Where
k is the static gain
, is known as the damping ratio
e
n
is known as the natural frequency

) ( ) (
) ( 2 ) ( 1
2
2
2
t Kx t y
dt
t dy
dt
t dy
n n
= + +
e
e
2-42
Second-order sensors - step function response
Response types
Underdamped (,<1)
Critically damped (,=1)
Overdamped (,>1)
For underdamped systems, the transient response will be oscillatory
about the steady value and occurs at the ringing frequency

or with a period

Time constant

2
1 e e =
n d
d
d
T
e
t 2
=
n
e
t
1
=
2-43
Second-order sensors - step response
Response parameters
Rise time (t
r
)
The time required to achieve a
value within 90% of the step input
Settling time (t
s
)
The time required for a
measurement systems oscillation
to settle within +/-10% of the
steady value.
Time to peak (t
p
)
The time required for a
measurement systems oscillation
to reach the first peak
Peak overshoot (M
p
)

2-44
Example: Accelerometers are used in seismic and vibration engineering to
determine the motion of large bodies to which the accelerometer is
attached. The physical parameters are given below. Derive the natural
frequency and damping ratio of the accelerometer.
2-45
Second Order Sensors Sine Function Input
t KA t y
dt
t dy
dt
t dy
t A t x
n n
e
e
e
e
sin ) (
) ( 2 ) ( 1
sin ) (
2
2
2
= + +
=
2 / 1 2 2
2 / 1 2 2
2
1
} ] / 2 [ ] ) / ( 1 {[
1 ) (
) (
ratio Magnitude
} ] / 2 [ ] ) / ( 1 {[
) (
output state steady of amplitude
)
) / ( 1
) / 2
( tan ) ( shift phase
)] ( sin[ ) ( ) ( ) (
n n
n n
n
n
steady steady
KA
B
M
KA
B
t B t y t y
e e e e
e
e
e e e e
e
e e
e e
e
e e e
+
= =
+
=
= u
u + = =

2-46
Second Order Sensors
Frequency response (Bode diagram)
2
nd
order system frequency response
magnitude ratio (Bode magnitude plot)
2-47
Frequency response (Bode diagram)
System characteristics
Zero damping
Magnitude ratio approaches infinity,
and phase shift jumps to t in the
vicinity of e=e
n
Resonance
Underdamped system may have
resonance. It occurs at the resonance
frequency:

Resonance behaviour results in M>1
and considerable phase shift. It is
non-linear and results in distortion of
the signal
Systems with damping ratio > 0.707
do not resonate.
2
nd
order system frequency response
phase shift (Bode phase plot)
2
2 1 e e =
n R
2-48
Magnitude ratio for a 2
nd
order system
Example
An accelerometer is to be
selected to measure a time-
dependent motion. In particular,
input signal frequencies below
100 Hz are of prime interest.
Select a set of acceptable
parameter specifications for the
instrument assuming a dynamic
error of +/-5%

Measurement System Behaviour

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Measurement System Behaviour

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Instrumentation and Sensors Prof XiaoQi Chen

Instrumentation and Sensors Prof XiaoQi Chen

Instrumentation and Sensors Prof XiaoQi Chen

Instrumentation and Sensors Prof XiaoQi Chen

= I The time response

Instrumentation and Sensors Prof XiaoQi Chen

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