Chapters 5 and 6: Ferrous

and Nonferrous Metals

Ferrous Metals and
Alloys
Production - General Properties -
Application
CHAPTER 5
5.1-5.4
Introduction
What is a ferrous metal or ferrous
alloy? It is simply a metal or alloy that
contains Iron (the element ferrous) as the
base (starting) metal.
26
th
element
Iron or Ferrous
55.85 Atomic Mass
General Categories of Ferrous
Metals and Alloys
Carbon and alloy steels
Stainless steel
Tool and Die steel
Cast Irons
Cast Steels
**Ferrous tools first appear about 4000 to 3000 BC,
made from meteoritic iron. Real ironworking started in
about 1100 BC in Asia Minor, and started the Iron Age.
APPLICATION OF FERROUS
(IRON) METALS / ALLOYS
5.2 Production of Iron and Steel
Raw Materials for Production
Iron Ore


Limestone ----------


Coke
Iron Ore
Abundant, makes up 5% of earths crust
Is not found in free state, must be found in rocks
and oxides, hence Iron ore.
After mining, the ore is crushed and the iron is
separated, then made into pellets, balls or
briquettes using binders, such as water.
The pellets are typically 65% iron, and about 1 in
diameter.

Coke (The black, legal kind)
Coke is formed by heating coal to 2100*F (1150 C),
then cooling it in quenching towers.

You need more than Iron? Why coke is used
1. Generates high heat, needed in order for chemical
reactions in ironmaking to take place.
2. Produces CO (carbon monoxide) which reduces
iron-oxide to Iron.
Lastly, Limestone




Limestone (calcium carbonate) is used to remove
impurities.

When the metal is melted, limestone combines
with impurities and floats to the top of the
metal, forming slag. The slag can then be
removed, purifying the iron.
Ironmaking

Raw Materials Pig Iron
The three raw materials are dumped into a blast
furnace.

Hot air (2000*F) is blasted into the furnace, which helps
drive the chemical reaction. The coke forms CO and the
CO reduces the iron oxide to iron.

The slag floats to the top and the metal is transferred to
molds and cools. IT IS NOW PIG IRON, ready for more
iron work or steelmaking.
Blast
Furnace
Tuyeres
(Same height as a 10 story building)
Steelmaking
Pig Iron Steel
To make steel you are simply removing more impurities,
such as, manganese, silicon, carbon, from the pig iron.

Impurities are removed by re-melting the metal and
adding carbon, steel scrap, and more limestone.

The metal can be melted using one of three methods.
Open-Hearth furnace
Electric furnace
Basic Oxygen furnace. (BOF)
Open-Hearth Furnace
Uses a fuel to generate heat, and melt the metal.
Basic-Oxygen Furnace
Fastest steelmaking process can
make 250 tons of steel / hour
Melted pig iron and scrap are poured
(charged) into a vessel.
Fluxing agents are added, like
limestone.
The molten metal is blasted with pure
oxygen. This produces iron oxide
which then reacts with carbon to
produce CO and CO2. The slag floats
to the top of the metal.
Higher steel quality than open hearth.
Used to make plate, sheet, I-beam,
tubing and channel.


Electric Furnace
Uses electric arc from electrode to metal to heat and melt it.
Can produce 60-90 tons of steel per day.
Steel is higher quality than open-hearth and BOF
Vacuum Furnace

Uses induction furnaces.
Air is removed from the furnace, this removes the
gaseous impurities from the molten metal.
Produces very high-quality steel.
5.3 Casting Ingots
Ingots
While steel is still molten, it is poured into a mold. The
mold may be a square, rectangle or round. The metal
becomes an ingot in the mold.
They can weigh 100 lbs to 40 tons.
The ingot will be removed from the mold and heated
uniformly to be rolled or formed into a final product.
HOWEVER While the molten metal cools, or solidifies,
gasses evolve and can affect the quality of the steel.
This leads to three types of steel: Killed Steel, Semi-
Killed Steel, and Rimmed Steel.
Killed Semi-Killed Rimmed Steel
Killed Steel This is a fully deoxidized steel, and thus,
has no porosity.
This is accomplished by using elements like
aluminum to de-oxidize the metal. The impurities
rise and mix with the slag.
It is called killed because when the metal is poured it
has no bubbles, it is quiet.
Because it is so solid, not porous, the ingot shrinks
considerably when it cools, and a pipe or
shrinkage cavity forms. This must be cut off and
scrapped.
Killed Semi-Killed Rimmed Steel
Semi-Killed Steel: This is practically the same as killed
steel, with some minor differences.
It is only partially de-oxidized, and therefore, is a
little more porous than killed steel.
Semi-Killed does not shrink as much as it cools, so
the pipe is much smaller and scrap is reduced.
It is much more economical and efficient to produce.
Killed Semi-Killed Rimmed Steel
Rimmed Steel: This is produced by adding elements
like aluminum to the molten metal to remove unwanted
gases. The gasses then form blowholes around the rim.
Results in little or no piping.
HOWEVER, impurities also tend to collect in the
center of the ingot, so products or rimmed steel need
to be inspected and tested.


**Refining
5.4 Continuous Casting
-Molten metal skips
ingot step, and goes
directly the furnace to
a tundish
-Metal solidifies in the mold
-The metal descends @ about 1/sec
-The solidified metal then goes through
pinch rollers that determine the final
form.

Benefits of Continuous Casting
Costs less to produce final product
Metal has more uniform composition and properties than
ingot processing.

Sections 5.5 - 5.7
Carbon and Alloying
Steel

Stainless Steels

Tool and Die Steels
Carbon and Alloying
Steels
Carbon and alloying steels are the
most commonly used metals
The structural makeup and controlled
processing of these steels make them
suitable for many different functions.
Basic product shapes include plate,
sheet, bar, wire, tube, castings, and
forgings.
Increasing the percentages of these
elements in steels, increases the
properties they impart.

Effects of Elements in
Steels
Different elements are added to steels
to given the steel different properties.
The elements pass on properties such
as harden- ability, strength, hardness,
toughness, wear resistance, etc.
Some properties are beneficial while
others are detrimental.
Effects of Elements in
Steels
Boron: Improves hardenability without the loss of
(or even with some improvement in) machinability
and formability.
Calcium: Deoxidizes steels, improves toughness,
and may improve formability and machinability.
Carbon: improves hardenability, strength,
hardness, and wear resistance; it reduces ductility,
weldability, and toughness.
Cerium: controls the shape of inclusions and
improves toughness in high-strength low alloy
steels; it deoxidizes steels.
Chromium: improves toughness, hardenability,
wear and corrosion resistance, and high-
temperature strength; it increases the depth of the
hardness penetration resulting from heat treatment
by promoting carburization.
Cobalt: improves strength and hardness at
elevated temperatures.
Effects of Elements in
Steels
Copper: improves resistance to atmospheric
corrosion and, to a lesser extent, increases strength
with little loss in ductility; it adversely affects the
hot-working characteristics and surface quality.
Lead: improves machinability; it causes liquid-
metal embrittlement.
Magnesium: has the same effects as cerium.
Manganese: improves hardenability, strength,
abrasion resistance, and machinability; it deoxidizes
the molten steel, reduce shot shortness, and
decreases weldability.
Molybdenum: improves hardenability, wear
resistance, toughness, elevated-temperature
strength, creep resistance, and hardness; it
minimizes temper embrittlement.
Effects of Elements in
Steels
Nickel: improves strength, toughness, and
corrosion resistance; it improves hardenability.
Niobium (columbium): imparts fineness of grain
size and improves strength and impact toughness;
it lowers transition temperature and may decrease
hardenability.
Phosphorus: improves strength, hardenability,
corrosion resistance, and machinability; it severely
reduces ductility and toughness.
Selenium: improves machinability.
Silicon: improves strength, hardness, corrosion
resistance, and electrical conductivity; it decreases
magnetic-hysteresis loss, machinability, and cold
formability.
Effects of Elements in
Steels
Sulfur: Improves machinability when combined
with manganese; it lowers impact strength and
ductility and impairs surface quality and weldability.
Tantalum: has effects similar to those of niobium.
Tellurium: improves machinability, formability,
and toughness.
Titanium: improves hardenability; it deoxidizes
steels.
Tungsten: has the same effects as cobalt.
Vanadium: improves strength, toughness,
abrasion resistance, and hardness at elevated
temperatures; it inhibits grain growth during heat
treatment.
Zirconium: has the same effects as cerium
Residual Elements
During the processing
of steels some residual
elements remain in the
medal.
These residuals are
trace elements that are
unwanted due to their
detrimental properties
but cannot be
extracted completely.
Some of these residual
elements include:
antimony, arsenic,
hydrogen, nitrogen,
oxygen, and tin.
Molten Steel
Carbon Steels
Carbon steels are
group by their
percentage of carbon
content per weight.
The higher the carbon
content the greater the
hardness, strength and
wear resistance after
heat treatment.
Low-carbon steel,
also called mild steels,
has less than 0.30%
carbon. Used in
everyday industrial
products like bolts,
nuts, sheet, plate and
tubes.
High Carbon Steel Nails
Carbon Steels
Medium-carbon steel has 0.30% to
0.60% carbon. Used for jobs requiring
higher strength such as machinery,
automotive equipment parts, and
metalworking equipment.
High-carbon steel has more than
0.60% carbon. Used parts that require
the highest strength, hardness, and
wear resistance. Once manufactured
they are heat treated and tempered
Alloy Steels
Alloy steels are steels that contain
significant amounts of alloying
elements.

High strength low alloy steels
Microalloyed steels
Nanoalloyed steels
Alloy Steels
High-strength,
low-alloy steels
(HSLA) steels were
developed to
improve the ratio of
strength to weight.
Commonly used in
automobile bodies
and in the
transportation
industry (the
reduced weight
makes for better
fuel economy ).
Microalloyed
steels Provide
superior properties
without the use of
heat treating. When
cooled carefully
these steels
develop enhanced
and consistent
strength.
Alloy Steels
Nanoalloyed steels have extremely
small grain size (10-100 nm). Since
their synthesis is done at an atomic
level their properties can be controlled
specifically.
Stainless Steels
Stainless steels
are primarily
know for their
corrosion
resistance, high
strength, and
ductility and
chromium
content.
Stainless Steels
The reason for the name stainless is due to the
fact that in the presence of oxygen, the steel
develops a thin, hard, adherent film of
chromium.
Even if the surface is scratched, the protective film is
rebuilt through passivation.
For passivation to occur there needs to be a minimum
chromium content of 10% to 12% by weight.
Stainless Steels
Stainless steels tend to have lower
carbon content since increased carbon
content lowers the corrosion
resistance of stainless steels.

Since the carbon reacts with chromium it
decreases the available chromium content
which is needed for developing the
protective film.
Stainless Steels
Using stainless steels as reinforcing bars, has
become a new trend, in concrete structures such
as highways buildings and bridges.
It is more beneficial than carbon steels because it is
resistant to corrosion from road salts and the
concrete itself.

Rebar corrosion
in concrete
Tool and Die Steels
Tool and die steels are alloyed
steels design for high strength, impact
toughness, and wear resistance at
normal and elevated temperatures.

High-speed steels Maintain their
hardness and strength at elevated
operating temperatures. There are two
basic types the M-series and T-series
Tool and Die Steels
M-series contain 10
% molybdenum and
have higher abrasion
resistance than T-
series
T- Series contain 12
% to 18 % tungsten.
They undergo less
distortion in heat
treatment and are
less expensive than
the M-series.

M- series steel drill bits coated
with titanium
Tool and Die Steels
Dies are tools used for drawing wire,
and for blanking, bending, cutting,
machine forging, and embossing. .
H-series (Hot-working steels) for use at
elevated temperatures. They have high
toughness and high resistance to wear
and cracking.
S-series (shock resisting steels)
designed for impact toughness.
Chapter 6: Nonferrous Metals
and Alloys
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Aluminum
6.3 Magnesium
6.4 Copper
6.5 Nickel
6.6 Superalloys
6.7 Titanium
6.8 Refractory Metals
Introduction
Nonferrous metals and alloys
Common- aluminum, copper, and
magnesium
High-strength high-temperature alloys
include: tungsten, tantalum, and
molybdenum.
Higher cost than ferrous metals but have
good properties such as:
Corrosion resistance
High thermal and electrical conductivity
Low density and ease of fabrication

Aluminum and Aluminum
Alloys
Most abundant metallic element (8% crust)
High strength to weight ratio
Resistant to corrosion
High thermal and electrical conductivity
Nonmagnetic
Easy formability and
machinability

UNS
UNS-Unified Numbering System
A common system used everywhere to describe
the condition of a metal or an alloy.
Generally has 4 numbers and a temper
designation
Temper designation tells the condition of the
material.
Example: 2024 wrought aluminum is A92024
UNS-Wrought Aluminum
Form: 1XXX
1
st
#- major alloying element
2
nd
#- modifications of alloy
3
rd
& 4
th
#- minimum amount of
aluminum in the alloy
EX: 1050 is aluminum with minimum
99.50% Al
Ex: 1090 shows a minimum of 99.90% Al
UNS-Cast Aluminum
Form: 1XX.X
2
nd
& 3
rd
#- minimum amount of
aluminum
4
th
#- Product form

Temper Designation
F: as fabricated (by cold or hot working or
by casting)
O: Annealed (from the cold worked or cast
state)
H: strain hardened by cold working (for
wrought products only)
T: heat treated
W: solution treated only (unstable temper)
Magnesium and Magnesium
Alloys
Lightest of all metals
Not sufficiently strong in pure form but
alloyed to increase strength.
Uses
Aircraft and missile components, bikes,
luggage, portable power tools
Designations for magnesium
A. 1 or 2 prefix letters
B. 2 or 3 numbers
Copper and
Copper Alloys
First produced in 4000 BC
Properties:
Best conductors of electricity and heat, good
corrosion resistance, and easily processed.
Uses:
Electronics, springs, cartridges, plumbing, heat
exchangers, and marine equipment.
Common alloys:
Brass, Bronze, Beryllium copper
Nickel and Nickel Alloys
Major alloying element for strength,
toughness, and corrosion resistance.
Offers a wide range of strength at different
temperatures.
Uses:
High temperature applications, food handling,
chemical processing, coins, marine applications.
Magnetic properties-electromagnetic
Used in solenoids

Superalloys
Used in high temperature applications and have good
resistant properties to:
Mechanical and thermal fatigue, thermal shock, creep,
and erosion at elevated temperatures
Examples: jet engines, gas turbines, and reciprocating
engines
Max temp.- 1000C (1800F)
Max temp. (non load)- 1200C (2200F)
Identified by trade names or by a
special numbering system
Titanium and
Titanium Alloys
Has the highest strength to weight ratio
Uses:
Jet engines, race cars, golf clubs, submarines,
and armor plates.
Pure state: strong and light
Alloys: improved workability, strength,
hardenability
High cost due to long production process
Refractory Metals and
Alloys
4 refractory metals: Molybdenum, Niobium,
Tungsten, and Tantlum.
Called refractory because of their high
melting points.
Discovered about 200 years ago.
Used in steels and superalloys because they
maintain their strength at high
temperatures.
Temperature range of 1100 to 2200 C
(2000 to 4000 F).

Molybdenum (Mo)
A silvery-white metal.
Discovered in the 18
th
century.
Has high melting point, high modulus of elasticity,
good resistance to thermal shock, and good
electrical and thermal conductivity.
Needs a protective coating because of low
resistance to oxidation at high temperatures.
Used in solid-propellant rockets, jet engines,
honeycomb structures, electronic computers,
heating elements, and dies for die casting.
Principle alloying element for titanium and
zirconium.

Niobium (Nb)
First identified in 1801.
Also known as Columbium.
Has good ductility and formability and has
greater oxidation resistance than other
refractory metals.
Used in rockets and missiles and in nuclear,
chemical, and superconductor applications.
Processed from ores by reduction and
refinement and from powder by melting and
shaping into ingots.
Tungsten (W)
First identified in 1781.
Most abundant of all refractory metals.
Highest melting point of any metal at 3410 C
(6170 F).
High strength at high temperatures.
Has high density (which makes it brittle at low
temperatures).
Used in hottest part of missiles and rockets,
weldinging electrodes, spark-plug electrodes, and
the wire filament in incadescent bulbs.
Processed from ore concentrates by chemical
decomposition and is then reduced.
Tantalum (Ta)
Characterized by its high melting point (3000
C, 5425 F), high density, good ductility and
resistance to corrosion.
Used mainly in electrolytic capacitors and
various electrical, electronic and chemical
industries.
Sometimes used in thermal applications such
as in furnaces and acid-resistant heat
exchanges.
Processed from ores by reduction and
refinement and from powder by melting and
shaping into ingots.

Beryllium (Be)
Steel grey in color.
High strength-to-weight ratio.
Used in rocket nozzles, space and missile
structures, aircraft disc brakes, and
precision instruments and mirrors.
Low neutron absorption.
Alloy element of copper and nickel.
Toxic. Its dust and fumes should not be
inhaled.


Zirconium (Zr)
Silvery in appearance.
Good strength and ductility at elevated
temperatures.
Good corrosion resistance because of
adherent oxide film.
Used in electronic components and in
nuclear-power reactor applications.
Low neutron absorption.

Low-Melting Alloys


Relatively low melting points.
Consists of lead, zinc, and tin.
Lead (Pb)
High density, resistance to corrosion, softness, low
strength, good ductility and workability.
Alloying it with antimony and tin make it usable in
piping, collapsible tubing, bearing alloys, cable
sheathing, roofing and lead-acid storage batteries.
Also used for damping sound and vibrations,
radiation shielding against x-rays, ammunition, as
weights, and in the chemical industry.
Poisonous; major efforst are being made to replace
it with other elements.
Source mineral is galena (PbS).
Zinc (Zn)
Bluish-white in color.
4
th
most utilized metal in industry.
Not developed until 18
th
century.
Used for galvanizing iron, steel sheet, and wire and as an
alloy base for casting.
Alloyed with aluminum, copper, and magnesium.
Zinc-based alloys are used for making fuel pumps and grills
for automobiles, components for household appliances,
kitchen equipment, various machinery parts and
photoengraving equipment.
Used in superplastic alloys.
Comes from a principle source mineral called zinc sulfide.

Tin (Sn)
Silvery-white, lustrous metal.
Developed in the 15
th
century.
Used mainly as a protective coating on steel sheets called tin
plating which is used to make tin cans.
Low shear strength.
Unalloyed tin is used as a lining material for water distillation
plants and as a molten layer of metal over which plate glass is
made.
Tin is usually alloyed with copper, antimony, lead, titanium,
and zirconium.
Can be used in journal-bearing materials because of its low
friction coefficient.

Precious Metals
Also known as
Noble Metals
(Gold, Silver, and Platinum)
Gold (Au)
Soft and ductile.
Has good corrosion resistance and any
temperature.
Used in jewelry, coinage, reflectors,
gold leaf for decorative purposes,
dental work, electroplating, and
electrical contacts and terminals.

Silver (Ag)
Ductile
Highest electrical and thermal
conductivity of any metal.
Used as tableware, jewelry, coinage,
electroplating, photographic film,
electrical contacts, solders, bearing
linings and food and chemical
equipment.
Sterling silver is an allow of silver and
7.5% copper.
Platinum
Soft, ductile.
Grayish-white metal.
Good corrosion resistance at any
temperature.
Used as electrical contacts, for spark-
plug electrodes, as catalysts for
automobile pollution-control devices,
in filaments, in nozzles as jewelry, and
in dental work.
Shape-Memory Alloys
Can be deformed into any shape at
room temperature but when heated
will return to original shape.
A typical one is 55% Nickel 45%
titanium.
Used as sensors, eyeglass frames,
stents, relays, pumps, switches,
connectors, clamps, fasteners, and
seals.
Amorphous Alloys (Metallic
Glasses)
No long-range crystalline structure. Have no grain
boundaries and the atoms are packed randomly
and tightly.
First obtained in the 1960s.
Typically contain iron, nickel, and chromium, which
are alloyed with carbon, phosphorus, boron,
aluminum, and silicon.
Have excellent corrosion resistance, good ductility,
and high strength.
Being developed to have twice the strength has
high strength steels so they can be used in large
structures.

Metal Foams
Foam-like substances that metal is
only 5% to 20% of its volume.
Very light weight.
Used in aerospace applications.
Also used as filters and orthopedic
implants.
Nanomaterials
Materials with grains, fibers, films, and composites
having particles that are 1-100 nm in size.
First investigated in the 1980s.
Have qualities superior to those of traditional materials
such as strength, hardness, ductility, wear resistance,
and corrosion resistance.
Used in cutting tools, ceramics, powders for powder-
metallurgy processing, next generation computer chips,
flat panel displays for laptop computers and televisions,
spark-plug electrodes, igniters and fuels for rockets,
medical implants, high-sensitivity sensors, high power
magnets and high-energy-density batteries.
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The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th ed. Copyright 2005,
Columbia University Press

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