Rocket Propulsion

Guided Weapons Systems

MSc Course
Missile Propulsion
Rocket Thrust
Rockets are reaction engines.
Operating principle based on Newtons laws
of motion.
2nd law - rate of change of momentum is
proportional to applied thrust (i.e. F = m x
a)
3rd law - every action has an equal and
opposite reaction.
Conservation of Momentum
Example
A spaceman of mass
80 kg throws a ball of
mass 0.4 kg forwards
at 20 m/s.
The spaceman will
then move
backwards at a
velocity of (0.4 / 80) x
20 = 0.1 m/s
Rocket Thrust
Rocket ejects mass at a given momentum
rate from the nozzle and receives a thrust in
the opposite direction.
Momentum rate = x U
e
= thrust

Where = propellant mass flow rate (kg/s)
U
e
= exhaust velocity (m/s).
There may also be a thrust component due
to pressure field in nozzle (see later).
Thrust may be increased by either increasing
propellant flow rate or exhaust velocity.
p
m
p
m
Rocket Principles
High pressure/temperature/velocity
exhaust gases provided through
combustion and expansion through
nozzle of suitable fuel and oxidiser
mixture.
A rocket carries both the fuel and
oxidiser onboard the vehicle whereas
an air-breather engine (e.g. turbojet or
turbofan) takes in its oxygen supply
from the atmosphere.
History of Rockets
First reaction engines
originated in Greece,
around 400 BC, using
steam.
Followed by the
aeolipile, designed by
Hero of Alexandria in
about 100 BC.






Military History of Rockets
First military use of
proper rockets was by
Chinese in 1232 in Battle
of Kai-Keng v Mongols.
Used gunpowder
(saltpeter, sulphur,
charcoal mixture) to fill
capped bamboo tubes
attached to arrows -
known as fire arrows.






History of Rockets (Cont.)
Mongols then produced rockets of their own
and use spread across Europe via Arabs.
In England, Roger Bacon improved
gunpowder mixture to greatly increase
range.
In France, Jean Froissant improved flight
accuracy by tube-launching (forerunner of
bazooka).






In Italy, Joanes de Fontana
designed surface-running
torpedo to attack ships.
History of Rockets (Cont.)
By 16th century, rockets were only used for
fireworks, though one breakthrough was
made by German Johann Schmidlap.
He was the first to use staging - a firework
with a large sky rocket (1st stage) jettisoned
after burn-out with a smaller 2nd stage
going to a higher altitude.
Basis behind all of todays space rockets.






History of Rockets (Cont.)
By late 17th century, Newtons laws were
being applied to rockets.
German and Russian rocket experimenters
built powerful rockets with masses above
45 kg.
Military use again by Indian army in 1792 &
1799 against British.
Led to British use, designs by Col William
Congreve used by British ships v Fort
McHenry in war of 1814 (rockets red
glare in Star-Spangled Banner).






History of Rockets (Cont.)
Rocket inaccuracy continued to be a big
bugbear but was significantly improved due
to Englands William Hales discovery of
spin stabilisation - using the exhaust gas to
strike small vanes and give the rocket spin.
Advances in breech-loaded cannon with
rifled barrels and exploding warheads (e.g.
by Prussians v Austrians) led to another
demise in military rocket use.






Modern Rocketry
Probably began with Russias Konstantin
Tsiolkovsky (1857-1935) who proposed
idea of space exploration by rockets in
1903!
Suggested use of liquid propellants for
increased range and stated that speed and
range were limited only by jet velocity of
escaping gas.
Also came up with mathematical range
equations (see later).






Modern Rocketry (Cont.)
Next major pioneering work done by Robert
Goddard (1882-1945) in USA, conducting
practical rocket experiments.






Began with solid propellant
rockets in 1915 but then
produced worlds first liquid
propellant rocket in 1926
(liquid oxygen and gasoline).
Later improvements: gyroscope for flight
control, payload compartment and parachute
recovery.
Modern Rocketry (Cont.)
Followed by Herman Oberth (1894-1989) in
Transylvania.
Published an important book on the use of
rockets for space travel in 1923.
His work led to further military development
of the rocket in the form of the infamous
German V-2 (known as A-4 in Germany),
used against London in WW2.






V-2
Programme directed by Wernher Von Braun.
Burnt mixture of liquid oxygen and alcohol at
rate of 130 kg/s for about a 70 s to develop
maximum thrust of about 725 kN - ballistic
coast to target.
Introduced too late to change outcome of war
but led to swift development of ICBMs.






V-2 (Cont.)






Maximum speed - approx 1340 m/s.
Impact velocity - approx 1100 m/s (> Mach 3).
Typical range/altitude of 350/90 km
respectively.
Carried 1 ton explosive warhead.
Launch mass about 13000 kg, impact mass
about 4040 kg.
Length 14 m
Diameter 1.65
m
V-2 Propulsion System




Ballistic Missiles






V-2 technology developed
after WW2 into ballistic
missile applications with
German rocket engineers
working on both US and
USSR programmes.
Eventually came ICBMs,
many also serving as
space launch vehicles
(e.g. Soviet R-7 and US
Atlas).
R-7 Sapwood ICBM
Some US Ballistic Missiles






Missile Launch
Mass
(t)
Propellant Range
(km)
Deployed
Redstone
27 Liquid 400 1959
Atlas
120 Liquid 14,000 1959
Titan 2
150 2 stage
liquid
15,000 1963
Minuteman
2
34 3 stage solid 12,500 1966
Polaris
14 2 stage solid 4,600 1964
Trident
59 3 stage solid 12,000 1990
Criteria of Performance






Many have been described previously in
Propulsion Parameters section of course.
Covered in more detail here and specific to
rockets only.
Includes:
thrust
specific impulse
total impulse
effective exhaust velocity
thrust coefficient
characteristic velocity
Thrust (F)


For a rocket engine:

Where:
= propellant mass flow rate
p
e
= exit pressure, p
a
= ambient pressure
u
e
= exit plane velocity, A
e
= exit area
m
( )
e e a e
F mu p p A = +
(1)
Specific Impulse (I or I
sp
)


The ratio of thrust / propellant mass flow rate is used to
define a rockets specific impulse - best measure of overall
performance of rocket motor.

In SI terms, the units of I are m/s or Ns/kg.
In the US:
with units of seconds - multiply by g (i.e. 9.80665 m/s
2
)
in order to obtain SI units of m/s or Ns/kg.
Losses mean typical values are 92% to 98% of ideal values.

/
sp
I F m =
/
sp
I F mg =
(2)
Total Impulse (I
tot
)


Defined as:
where t
b
= time of burning

If F is constant during burn:
0
b
t
total
I Fdt =
}
(3a)
Thrusttime of burning
total m b
I F t = =
(3b)
Total Impulse (I
tot
) (Cont.)


Thus the same total impulse may be obtained by
either:
high F, short t
b
(usually preferable), or
low F, long t
b
Also, for constant propellant consumption rate:

(3c)
specific impulse total mass of propellant consumed
m
total b
F
I mt
m
= =
Effective Exhaust Velocity (c)


Convenient to define an effective exhaust velocity (c),
where:


The terms effective exhaust velocity and specific
impulse are therefore synonomous.
From equation (1) it can then be shown that:



F mc =
F
c I
m
= =
( )
e a e
e
p p A
c u
m

= + (4c)
(4b) (4a)
Thrust Coefficient (C
F
)

Defined as:

where p
c
= combustion chamber pressure,
A
t
= nozzle throat area
Depends primarily on (p
c
/p
a
) so a good
indicator of nozzle performance dominated by
pressure ratio.

F
c t
F
C
p A
=
(5b)
Characteristic Velocity (c*)

Defined as:

Calculated from standard test data.
It is independent of nozzle performance
and is therefore used as a measure of
combustion efficiency dominated by T
c

(combustion chamber temperature).

*
c t
p A
c
m
=
(6)
Thermodynamic Performance
of Rocket Engines






Parameters mentioned above now covered in
greater depth, using following simplifying
assumptions:
combustion gases obey perfect gas laws.
constant specific heat for combustion gases.
1-D flow.
no frictional losses.
no heat transfer to walls.
combustion complete before gas enters nozzle.
process steady with respect to time.
Thermodynamic Performance
- Thrust






Parameters affecting thrust are primarily:
mass flow rate
exhaust velocity
exhaust pressure
nozzle exit area
Thermodynamic Performance
- Thrust






Mass flow rate
Most easily evaluated at throat, where
conditions will always be choked and M = 1.
Substituting A = A
t
and M = 1 into GD eq (13):



i.e.
( )
1
2 1
1
1
1
2
c
t c
m T
A p R

| |
+
|
\ .
( )
( )
1
2 1
2
1
t c
c
m A p
RT

(
=
(
+

(7)
Thermodynamic Performance
- Thrust






Exhaust velocity
Several relationships may be derived:




(8a)
1 2
2
2
1
1
2
e
e o
e
M
u RT
M

(
(
=
(

( +

1
2
1
1
o e
e
o
RT p
u
p

| |
=
|

\ .
(8b)
1 1
2 1 2 1
e e
e p o
o o
p p
u c T Q
p p



| | | |
=
| |
\ . \ .
1
2
1
1
c e
e
o
T p R
u
M p

| |
=
|

\ .
(8c)
(8d)
Thermodynamic Performance
- Thrust






Equations (7) and (8) may thus be used to
obtain a useful overall equation for the rocket
thrust:





(9)
( )
( )
( )
1
1
2 1
2 2
1
1 1
c e
t c e a e
c o
RT p
F A p p p A
RT p

(
| |
= +
( |
+
\ .

( )
( )
1 2
1 1
2
1
2 2
1
1 1
e
t c e a e
o
p
F A p p p A
p

(
(
| | | |

(
= +
` ( | |
(
+
\ . \ .

(

)
Thermodynamic Performance
- Specific Impulse






For a fully-expanded condition:




If not perfectly-expanded then I also
dependent upon A
e
and p
a
.
(10)
1
2
1
1
c e
o
T p R
I
M p

| |
=
|

\ .
Thermodynamic Performance
- Specific Impulse






Influence of
Pressure Ratio
&
Thermodynamic Performance
- Specific Impulse






Variable Parameters - Observations
Strong pressure ratio effect - but rapidly diminishing
returns after about 30:1.
High T
c
value desirable for high I - but gives problems
with heat transfer into case walls and dissociation of
combustion products practical limit between about
2750 and 3500 K, depending on propellant.
Low value of molecular weight desirable favouring
use of hydrogen-based fuels.
Low values of desirable.
Thermodynamic Performance
- Thrust Coefficient






May be theoretically represented as:



Thus independent of combustion temperature
and propellant composition.
mainly a function of pressure ratio and closely
controlled by nozzle conditions therefore a
useful measure of nozzle performance.
( )
1 2
1 1
2
1
2 2
1
1 1
e e a e
F
o c c t
p p p A
C
p p p A

(
(
| | ( | |

(
= +
` ( | | (
(
+
\ . \ .

(

)
(11)
Thrust Coefficient (C
F
)

Maximum thrust when exhausting into a vacuum
(e.g. in space), when:


( )
max
1
1 2
2
2 1
2 2
1 1
F
C

| | | |
=
| |
+
\ . \ .
(11a)
Thrust Coefficient (C
F
)
- Observations

More desirable to run a rocket under-expanded (to
left of optimum line) rather than over-expanded.
Uses shorter nozzle with reduced weight and
size.
Increasing pressure ratio improves performance
but improvements diminish above about 30/1.
Large nozzle exit area required at high pressure
ratios implications for space applications.

Thermodynamic Performance
- Characteristic Velocity






May be shown to be theoretically represented
by:



Thus, in contrast to thrust coefficient, is
independent of pressure ratio but is
dependent on chamber temperature.
Therefore used as indicator of combustion
efficiency.
(12)
( ) ( )
1 1
2 1 2 1
*
1 1
2 2
c o
RT a
c




+ +

+ +
( | |
= =
|
(
\ .
Actual Rocket Performance






Performance may be affected by any of the
following deviations to simplifying
assumptions:
Properties of products of combustion vary with
static temperature and thus position in nozzle.
Specific heats of combustion products vary with
temperature.
Non-isentropic flow in nozzle.
Heat loss to case and nozzle walls.
Pressure drop in combustion chamber due to heat
release.
Power required for pumping liquid propellants.
Suspended particles present in exhaust gas.
Internal Ballistics
Liquid propellant engines store fuel and
oxidiser separately - then introduced into
combustion chamber.
Solid propellant motors use propellant
mixture containing all material required for
combustion.
Majority of modern GW use solid propellant
rocket motors, mainly due to simplicity and
storage advantages.
Internal ballistics is study of combustion
process of solid propellant.
Solid Propellant Combustion
Combustion chamber is high
pressure tank containing
propellant charge at whose
surface burning occurs.
No arrangement made for its
control charge ignited and left to
itself so must self-regulate to
avoid explosion.
Certain measure of control
provided by charge and
combustion chamber design and
with inhibitor coatings.
Solid Propellant Combustion
Fundamental property of combustion process
is burn rate.
Burning recedes linearly in direction
perpendicular to surface by parallel layers,
sometimes known as rate of regression
(usually measured in mm/s) constant for
given charge under set conditions.
Propellant Burn Rate


Propellant burn rate (r) is determined empirically from
burning of small slabs under standard conditions:
Propellant temperature = 294 K
Chamber pressure = 68.95 bar
Mass flow rate from combustion given by:

Where: A
b
= burning area and
p
= propellant density
b p
m A r = (13)
Propellant Burn Rate


Burn rate (r) of the solid propellant is a function of:
Propellant composition
Combustion chamber conditions
combustion pressure on propellant (p
c
)
propellant initial temperature (T
p
)
velocity of gaseous combustion products
combustion gas temperature
time since start of burn
motor motion

Burning Rate versus
Combustion Pressure
These graphs can be approximated by:

n
c
r ap =
(14)
where:
r = burning rate
p
c
= combustion pressure
a = empirical constant
(influenced by T
p
)
n = burn rate exponent

Burning Rate versus
Combustion Pressure

Typical Double
Base
Propellant Burn
Rate
Characteristics

Self-Regulation of Combustion
Intersection of burn rate and propellant exit mass flow rate
curves gives equilibrium combustion pressure.
With n < 1, the combustion process self regulates, the lower
the value of n the more stable is the process.
With n > 1, the system will explode!
Effect of Nozzle Throat Area (A
t
)
on Combustion Stability
p
c
r
n<1
p
c
r
n<1
p
c
r
n<1
A
t
Large Throat Small Throat
From X-flow function at throat:
So gradient of nozzle mass flow rate curve is directly
proportional to throat area reduced A
t
gives increased r.
| | ( )
,1
o
t
o
p
m A X
RT
=
Propellant Area
(Restriction) Ratio (K)
Know that:
And for stability:
Restriction ratio defined as:
So that (since r = a p
c
n
):
K thus exerts very strong influence on equilibrium p
c
.
For n = 0.75 (say), p
c
o K
4
, so very sensitive - hence
preferable to have low values of n for reduced sensitivity.
( )
1
*
1 n
c p
p c a K

=
*
b c
t p
A p
K
A c r
= =
o b p b
m m r A = =
*
c t
o
p A
m
c
=
(15)
(16)
Effect of Burn Area (A
b
)
on Burn Rate (r)

Since r = a p
c
n
and p
c
= (c* a
p
K)
1/(1 n)

Increase in K or A
b
for
a fixed A
t
value modifies
the burn rate curve as
shown to shift the
operating point upwards
and increase thrust.
m
Ballistic Additives
Some substances (e.g. lead salicylate, lead stearate, etc.)
may be added to a solid propellant to reduce n and thus reduce
sensitivity and improve combustion stability - known as
platonisation.
Gives relatively flat curve of r versus p
c
over p
c
range.
Propellant Initial
Temperature Effect
Affects burn rate coefficient (a) and thus burn rate (r).
Variations of up to 35% possible for p
c
and t
b
.
Total impulse hardly affected but thrust is and can give
problems.
Temperature Sensitivity
Sensitivity expressed in form of temperature
coefficients:
Burn rate:

Typically 0.2% per
o
C
Pressure:

Typically 0.15 to 0.35% per
o
C






ln 1
c c
p
p p
p p
d r dr
dT r dT
o
| | | |
= =
| |
| |
\ . \ .
ln 1
c c
K
p c p
K K
d p dp
dT p dT
t
| | | |
= =
| |
| |
\ . \ .
(17b)
(17a)
Temperature
Sensitivity (Cont.)
Effect of temperature of burn rate and pressure
obtained from:



It may also be shown that:






(18b)
(18a)
o p
r r T o A = A
o K
p p T t A = A
1
1
K p
n
t o =

Burn Rate
Gas Velocity Effect
Most solid
rocket motors
are in form of
perforated,
cylindrical stick.






Gas produced by burning charge flows past
burning surface and out through nozzle.
Very high velocities produced affects heat
transfer rate and increases burn rate erosive
burning.
Burn Rate
Combustion Instabilities






Burning not necessarily smooth and regular
process.
May produce sudden unpredictable pressure
peaks and result in burst cases, propellant
losses, reduced range and loss of accuracy.
Known as resonant burning.
Opposite low pressure troughs can cause
intermittent stopping of burning chuffing.
Particularly a problem with low initial
temperatures and over-sized nozzle throats.
Rocket Propellants






Require a suitable mix of fuel and oxidiser.
Four main possibilities:
Petroleum + oxidiser
Cryogenic
Hypergolic
Solid
Solid propellants generally favoured for
military applications.
Rocket Propellants






Petroleum
Uses refined kerosene known as
RP-1 (rocket propellant 1), burnt
with liquid oxygen (LOX) or, on
older rockets, with nitric acid as
oxidiser.
Used, for example, on first stage
boosters of Delta, Atlas-Centaur
and Saturn rockets with typical
I
sp
of 2600 m/s.
Atlas-Centaur
Rocket Propellants






Cryogenic
Generally uses liquid hydrogen (LH
2
) as fuel
with liquid oxygen (LOX) as oxidiser.
Requires temperatures of -183
o
C for LOX and
-253
o
C for LH
2
, giving formidable engineering
problems.
In liquid state, density is vastly increased so
that much smaller tanks are needed.
Major storage problems so mostly unsuitable
for military rockets.
Rocket Propellants






Cryogenic (Continued)
Used on J-2 engines
on Saturn V 2
nd
/3
rd

stages with I
sp
of
about 4250 m/s and
also on Space Shuttle
(I
sp
= 4550 m/s).
LH
2
and LOX burn
clean so by-product is
water vapour.


Saturn V
J-2 engine
Rocket Propellants






Hypergolic
Fuels and oxidisers which ignite on contact giving
easy start/restart capabilities often needed for
spacecraft systems.
Much easier to store than cryogenics.
Fuel usually monomethyl hydrazine (MMH) with
oxidiser nitrogen tetroxide (N
2
O
4
) - both highly
toxic.
I
sp
typically 3100 m/s.
Used on second stage of Delta, Titan and also on
Space Shuttle for orbital manoeuvres.
Solid Propellant Selection
Desirable properties
May be divided into those concerned with:
performance
satisfactory operation
storage & handling
supply
Many are mutually conflictive in nature.






Propellant Selection -
Performance Considerations
By considering specific impulse (eq. 10), require:
Molecular weight of combustion products as low as
possible.
Temperature of combustion as high as possible.
Average propellant density as high as possible.
Specific heat ratio of combustion products as low as
possible.
Calorific value per unit mass as high as possible.
Propellant Selection -
Operation Considerations
Combustion temperature not too high otherwise mechanical
difficulties.
Chemically inert - oxidisers affect pumps, valves, seals, etc.
Similar expansion coefficient for propellant and case.
Good mechanical properties to prevent distortion from high
acceleration loads.
High thermal conductivity to minimise temperature
gradients.
High specific heat if used for cooling.
Propellant Selection -
Storage/Supply Considerations
Storage
Low vapour pressure for liquid propellants.
Non-toxic propellants & products of combustion.
Low explosion & fire hazards - no detonation risk.
Supply
Readily available in peace and war time.
Low cost, though only small part of total R & D costs.
Solid Propellant
Classifications
Double Base Propellants
Homogeneous mixture of two explosives - usually
nitroglycerine (NG) dissolved in nitrocellulose (NC),
sometimes with additives.
Advantages are:
Smokeless; low cost; low n value (about 0.3) and can be
easily platonised for good burning stability.
Disadvantages are:
Lower density than composites so low specific impulse;
hazardous to manufacture; grain requires structural support.
Solid Propellant
Classifications
Composite Modified Double Base
(CMDB) Propellants
Double-base propellants which include
addition of compounds, such as:
Ammonium perchlorate (AP)
Aluminium fuel
Solid explosive nitramine compounds
(HMX, RDX).
Typical CMDB Ingredients
Solid Propellant
Classifications
Composite Propellants
Heterogeneous mixture of powdered metal, crystalline
oxidiser and polymer binder.
Most common type used.
Advantages are:
Higher density & specific impulse than DB; easier to
handle, store & manufacture; more reliable combustion.
Disadvantages are:
Smoky (depending on aluminium content); toxic exhaust
gases.
Solid Propellant Properties
n
Solid Propellant
Applications
Predominant in GW applications, mainly due to
ease of utilisation, straightforward handling, lack of
servicing equipment and simple firing.
Thrusts vary from 5 N to 10 MN.
No moving parts, unless TVC included.
Rarely able to turn thrust on/off and modify thrust
on demand though solid propellant pulse rocket
motor may change this in the future.
Solid Propellant
Applications - Profiles
Different profiles include:
Boost thrust for anti-tank, ramjet boost, etc.
Boost-sustain anti-missile, anti-aircraft, etc.
Boost-coast air-to-air.
UK Missile Solid
Propellant Applications
Include:
Sea Cat (boost & sustain)
Sea Dart (boost)
Sea Wolf (boost)
VL Sea Wolf (TVC launch &
boost)
Starstreak (eject & boost)
Sea Wolf
Sea Dart
UK Missile Solid
Propellant Applications (Cont.)
Include:
Swingfire (dual boost & TVC
sustain)
Sea Skua (boost & sustain)
Rapier (dual boost & sustain)
Javelin (eject & boost)
Skyflash (boost)
Sea Skua
Javelin
Rocket Motor
Applications (Cont.)
Solid Propellant Rocket
Motor Design
Cylindrical body good shape for pressure vessel - also easy
to manufacture, store & transport and good aerodynamically.
In this example, charge bonded to insulation layer which is
bonded to case.
Grain Design - Charge
Geometries
(a) cigarette (axial/end) burner - long burn time, big CG
change;
(b) slotted-tube radial burner; (c) star centre radial burner.
Different shapes
used to vary burn
rate/time and thus
thrust.
Grain Design - Thrust
Profiles
The grain design can be used to give thrust variation.
Progressive
Burn during which thrust, pressure and burning area
increases.
Neutral
Burn during which thrust, pressure and burning area
remain constant ( 15%).
Regressive
Burn during which thrust, pressure and burning area
decreases.
Grain Burn
Characteristics
Grain Design (Cont.)
More possible grain geometries
Propellant Grain
Definitions
Web thickness (b)
Minimum thickness from burning surface to case
wall for an end-burner, equal to length of
grain.
Web fraction (b
f
)
ratio of web thickness (b) to grain radius
Volumetric loading
ratio of propellant volume (V
b
) to chamber
volume (V
c
)
Common Propellant
Grain Configurations
Case Design
Metal Cases
Typical metals used are high strength steels and
titanium alloys.
Many advantages:
Toughness - preventing damage during handling.
High melting temperature - allowing less insulation.
Good aging properties with time and resistance to
weather exposure.
Thin walls possible so more propellant may be packed in.
Case Design
Fibre Reinforced Plastic Cases
Glass or carbon fibre laid into patterns and bonded
with epoxy resin.
Advantages:
High strength/weight ratio (up to 10 x metals); lay-
up may be tailored to suit stress requirements.
Disadvantages:
Lower melting temperatures (approx 180
o
C);
reinforcements needed in mounting areas; high
thermal expansion coefficient; low thermal
conductivity.
Propellant Grain Mounting
Secure mounting needed due to high loads
experienced during manoeuvres.
Case bonded method
used for large grains
(diameter > 0.5 m, mass
> 300 kg).
Free standing method
used for smaller grain
types and when grain
has good stiffness
properties (DB types).
Case Bonding
Major problem due to different expansion
coefficients of case and propellant.
Particular problem
in air-to-air
systems with big
temperature
fluctuations.
Solid Rocket Nozzles
Nozzle must provide thrust along rocket axis and
maximise it for given pressure ratio.
Three major
configurations
used.
Solid Rocket Nozzle Design
Possibilities
Solid Rocket Nozzle Design
Bell shape gives
maximum
performance and
lowest losses but
also the biggest
so only tends to
be used for
space
applications.
Nozzle Heat Transfer
Rates
Very high heat
transfer rates in
nozzle due to
combination of high
gas temperatures
and high velocities
peak at throat.
Metals unsuitable in
such areas.
Typical Nozzle Materials
Typical Nozzle Temperatures
& Ablative Losses
Rocket Nozzle Cooling
If ablation rates are excessive, cooling may be
achieved by burning lower temperature propellant
on side of chamber - but reduces specific impulse.
Thrust Vector Control (TVC)
Sometimes a requirement to change flight direction
without using aerodynamic control methods - TVC
then used.
TVC methods may be placed into four main
categories:
Mechanical deflection of nozzle.
Insertion of heat resistant bodies into the main
jet.
Injection of fluid into the side of the diverging
nozzle section.
Separate thrust producing devices.
Thrust Vector Control (TVC)
Common Approaches to TVC
L = Liquid
S = Solid
Thrust Vector Control (TVC)
More Common Approaches to TVC
L = Liquid
S = Solid
Liquid Propellant Rockets
Fuel & oxidant are stored outside the
combustion chamber with two possible
supply methods:
pressurised storage tanks (pressure-feed
system).
use of pumps (turbopump system)
complex.
Turbopump system only needs tanks to
sustain ambient pressure values -
mainly space applications.

Lance
Pressure-feed systems have upper size/weight
limitation - mainly GW applications.

Typical Liquid Propellant
Turbopump Rocket
Solid v Liquid Rockets
Solid Rocket Advantages
High propellant density (volume-limited designs).
Long-lasting chemical stability.
Readily available, tried and trusted, well proven in
service.
No field servicing equipment & straightforward
handling.
Cheap, reliable, easy firing and simple electrical
circuits.
Solid v Liquid Rockets
Solid Rocket Disadvantages
Lower specific impulses.
Difficult to vary thrust on demand.
Smoky exhausts.
Performance affected by ambient
temperature.
Advantages less distinct compared with
modern packaged liquid propellant rocket
(e.g. Lance).
Packaged Liquid-
Propellant Rocket Engine
Some tactical missiles require total impulse
of < 500 kNs - range favourable to
pressure feed liquid-propellant system.
If hypergolic propellants used then starting
and ignition systems can be simplified.
Concept further simplified by pre-packing
and sealing propellants into respective
tanks well before use.
Packaged Liquid Propellant v
Solid Propellant
Packaged liquid propellant system advantages
include:
control of thrust on command, typically over 5:1
range.
wide operating temperature limits.
no limitation on temperature cycling no grain to
crack.
low smoke and flash emission levels.
reduced radio interference from exhaust.
long term storage.
modular design.
safer non-propulsive after damage.
Packaged Liquid Propellant v
Solid Propellant (Cont.)
Packaged liquid propellant system disadvantages
include:
relatively new technology.
reduced reliability due to greater number of parts.
fire hazard if both tanks are ruptured.
toxic fumes.
more fragile and liable to handling damage.
MGM-52C Lance Packaged
Liquid Propellant System
Pre-packaged bi-propellant liquid-rocket system using
unsymmetrical dimethylhydrazine (UDMH) as fuel and
red fuming nitric acid (IRNFA) as oxidizer.
Rocket Design Example
A sea level rocket requires 10 kN of thrust for 20 s
and is restricted in size to a maximum length of 1 m.
Size the nozzle throat, nozzle exit, propellant charge
and suggest a suitable charge shape given the burn
duration and required thrust.
Assume sea level pressure p
a
= 1 bar, propellant is
XLDB/AP where a (constant) = 3 x 10
-6
, = 1.25, R
= 0.325 kJ/kgK.
Rocket Design Example
Solution
For XLDB/AP, using Table 1

p
= 0.067 lb/in
3
= 1851 kg/m
3
, I
sp
= 269 s = 2639 m/s
T
o
= 6060
o
F = 3621 K, r = 0.35 in/s = 8.88 mm/s, n = 0.5
If fully-expanded,

Using the X-flow function for a choked throat and
M=1:

e sp
F mu mc mI = = =
10000/ 2639 3.789 kg/s m= =
( 1)/ 2( 1)
/( ) /(( 1) / 2) 0.658
o c t
m RT p A



= + =
Rocket Design Example
Solution (Cont.)
Using r = a p
c
n
,
8.88 x 10
-3
= 3 x 10
-6
p
c
0.5
and p
c
= 87.6 bar
From X-flow function,
A
t
= 3.789 \(325 x 3621)/ (0.658 x 87.6 x 10
5
)
= 7.131 x 10
-4
m
2
d
t
= 30.1 mm
p
c
/p
a
= 87.6 and, from charts, A
e
/A
t
= 10,
A
e
= 7.131 x 10
-3
m
2
and d
e
= 95.2 mm

/(0.658 )
t o c
A m RT p =
Rocket Design Example
Solution (Cont.)
For long range missile, assume use of end burner
propellant and = 3.789 x 20 = 75.78 kg
Also,
A
p
= 3.789 / (1851 x 8.88 x 10
-3
) = 0.231 m
2
d
p
= 0.54 m
and m
p
= A
p
l
p

p
, l
p
= 75.78 / (0.231 x 1851) = 0.178
m
Unrealistic grain dimensions so redo with another type.

p b
m mt =
p p
m A r =
Rocket Design Example
Solution (Cont.)
Use slotted radial burner instead with inside and
outside diameters of d
pi
and d
po
Assume l
p
= 800 mm, leaving 200 mm for the nozzle.
Using m
p
= A
p
l
p

p
, A
p
= 75.78 / (0.8 x 1851) = 0.051
m
2
0.051 = (t/4)(d
p2
2
d
p1
2
) (d
p2
2
d
p1
2
) = 0.04 m
2
For d
p1
= 0.05 m, d
p2
= 206 mm (reasonable)
Though this will give a progressive thrust profile.