Communication System

CHAPTER 2: Noise
By Dr Khairun Nidzam bin Ramli

BEB31803 ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEM
Dept of Communication Engineering, FKEE
Topics Covered in Chapter 2
1. Types of Noise
2. Noise Spectral Density
3. Signal-to-noise Ratio
4. Noise Factor and Noise Figure
5. Friiss Formula
6. Equivalent Noise Temperature
7. Noise Measurement

NOISE
CORRELATED
NOISE
UNCORRELATED
NOISE
NONLINEAR
DISTORTION
HARMONIC
DISTORTION
INTERMODULATION
DISTORTION
EXTERNAL INTERNAL
SHOT
TRANSIENT
TIME
THERMAL
ATMOSPHERIC EXTRATERRESTRIAL
SOLAR COSMIC
MAN-MADE IMPULSE INTERFERENCE
Figure 2.1: Electrical Noise Source Summary
TYPE OF NOISE
Noise can be divided into :

2 general categories

Correlated noise implies relationship between the signal and
the noise, exist only when signal is present
Uncorrelated noise present at all time, whether there is signal
or not. Under this category there are two broad categories
which are:-
i) Internal noise
ii) External noise

UNCORRELATED NOISE
Can be divided into 2 categories
1. External noise
Generated outside the device or circuit
Three primary sources are atmospheric, extraterrestrial and man
made

(a) Atmospheric Noise
Naturally occurring electrical disturbance originate within Earths
atmosphere
Commonly called static electricity
Most static electricity is naturally occurring electrical conditions,
such as lighting
In the form of impulse, spread energy through wide range of
frequency
Insignificant at frequency above 30 MHz

(b) Extraterrestrial Noise

Consists of electrical signals that originate from outside earth
atmosphere, deep-space noise
Divide further into two
(i) Solar noise generated directly from suns heat. There are 2
parts to solar noise:-
Quite condition when constant radiation intensity exist and high
intensity
Sporadic disturbance caused by sun spot activities and solar
flare-ups which occur every 11 years

(ii) Cosmic noise continuously distributed throughout the galaxies,
small noise intensity because the sources of galactic noise are
located much further away from sun. It's also often called as
black-body noise.

(c) Man-made noise

Source spark-producing mechanism such as from commutators in
electric motors, automobile ignition etc
Impulsive in nature, contains wide range of frequency that
propagate through space the same manner as radio waves
Most intense in populated metropolitan and industrial areas and is
therefore sometimes called industrial noise.

(d) Impulse noise
High amplitude peaks of short duration in the total noise
spectrum.
Consists of sudden burst of irregularly shaped pulses.
More devastating on digital data,
Produce from electromechanical switches, electric motor etc.

(e) Interference
External noise
Signal from one source interfere with another signal.
It occurs when harmonics or cross product frequencies from one
source fall into the passband of the neighboring channel.
Usually occurs in radio-frequency spectrum

2. Internal noise
Generated within a device or circuit.
3 primary kinds, shot noise, transit-time noise and thermal
noise
(a) Shot noise
Caused by random arrival of carriers (hole and electron) at the
output element of an electronic device such as diode, field effect
transistor or bipolar transistor.
The currents carriers (ac and dc) are not moving in a continuous,
steady flow, as the distance they travel varies because of their
random paths of motion.
Shot noise randomly varying and is superimposed onto any signal
present.
When amplified, shot noise sounds similar to metal pellets falling
on a tin roof.
Sometimes called transistor noise
(b) Transit-time noise (T
tn
)
Any modification to a stream of carriers as they pass from the
input to the output of a device produce irregular, random variation
(emitter to the collector in transistor).
Time it takes for a carrier to propagate through a device is an
appreciable part of the time of one cycle of the signal , the noise
become noticeable.
T
tn
is transistors is determined by carrier mobility, bias voltage,
and transistor construction.
Carriers traveling from emitter to collector suffer from emitter
delay, base T
tn
,and collector recombination-time and propagation
time delays.
If transmit delays are excessive at high frequencies, the device
may add more noise than amplification of the signal.

(c) Thermal noise
Due to rapid and random movement of electrons
within a conductor due to thermal agitation and
present in all electronic components and
communication system.
Uniformly distributed across the entire
electromagnetic frequency spectrum, often referred
as white noise.
Form of additive noise, meaning that it cannot be
eliminated , and it increases in intensity with the
number of devices and circuit length.
Set as upper bound on the performance of
communication system.
Temperature dependent, random and continuous and
occurs at all frequencies.

WHITE NOISE
There are many ways to characterize different noise sources,
one is to consider the spectral density, that is, the mean square
fluctuation at any particular frequency and how that varies with
frequency.
In what follows, noise will be generated that has spectral
densities that vary as powers of inverse frequency, more
precisely, the power spectra P(f) is proportional to 1 / f
|
for | >
0.
When | = 0 the noise is referred to white noise, when | = 2, it
is referred to as Brownian noise, and when it is 1 it normally
referred to simply as 1/f noise which occurs very often in
processes found in nature.
White process is a process in which all frequency component
appear with equal power, i.e. power spectral density is constant
for all frequencies.
A process X(t) is called a white process if it has a flat
spectral density,i.e., if S
X
(f) is constant for all f.

White Noise, | = 0
1 = |
3 = |
0 = |
2 = |
Noise Spectral Density
In communications, noise spectral density No is the
noise power per unit of bandwidth; that is, it is the
power spectral density of the noise.
It has units of watts/hertz, which is equivalent to watt-
seconds or joules.
If the noise is white, i.e., constant with frequency,
then the total noise power N in a bandwidth B is BN
o
.
This is utilized in Signal-to-noise ratio calculations.
The thermal noise density is given by N
o
= kT, where k
is Boltzmann's constant in joules per kelvin, and T is
the receiver system noise temperature in kelvin.
N
o
is commonly used in link budgets as the denominator
of the important figure-of-merit ratios E
b
/N
o
and E
s
/N
o
.
Spectral density of white noise is
a constant, N
0
/2

Autocorrelation function:

White Noise Spectral Density
f
SX(f)
White noise - power spectrum
0
White noise - autocorrelation
t
) (t RXX
0
N0
2
N0
2
0
( )
2
X
N
S f =
1 0
2
0
0
( )
2
2
( )
2
XX
j ft
N
R F
N
e df
N
t
t
o t
| |
=
|
\ .
=
=
}
k = Boltzmanns constant = 1.38 x 10
-23

Figure 2.2: White noise (a) power
spectrum (b) autocorrelation
GAUSSIAN PROCESS
Gaussian process is important in
communication systems.
The main reason is that thermal
noise in electrical devices
produced by movement of
electrons due to thermal
agitation is closely modeled by a
Gaussian process.
Due to the movements of
electrons, sum of small currents
of a very large number of
sources was introduced.
Since majority sources are
independent, hence the total
current is sum of large number
of random variables.
Therefore the total currents has
Gaussian distribution.
Figure 2.5: Histogram of some
noise voltage measurements
Properties of Thermal Noise
Thermal noise is a stationary process
Thermal noise is a zero-mean process
Thermal noise is a Gaussian process
Thermal noise is a white noise with power spectral density
S
X
(f)=kT/2=S
n
(f)=N
0
/2.

It is clear that power spectral density of thermal noise
increase with increasing the ambient temperature,
therefore, keeping electric circuit cool makes their
noise level low.
NOISE POWER
Noise power is given as

and can be written as
P
N
= kTB [W]
where
P
N
= noise power,
k = Boltzmanns constant (1.38x10
-23
J/K)
B = bandwidth,
T = absolute temperature (Kelvin)(17
o
C or 290K)

0
0
2
B
N
B
N
P df
N B
=
=
}
NOISE VOLTAGE
Figure 2.4 shows the
equivalent circuit for a
thermal noise source.
Internal resistance R
I
in series
with the rms noise voltage V
N
.
For the worst condition, the
load resistance R = R
I
, noise
voltage dropped across R =
half the noise source
(V
R
=V
N
/2) and
The noise power P
N
,
developed across the load
resistor = kTB

V
N
/2
V
N
/2
V
N R
R
I
Noise Source
The mathematical expression :

Figure 2.4: Noise source equivalent
circuit
( )
2
2
2
/ 2
4
4
4
N
N
N
N
N
V
V
P kTB
R R
V RkTB
V RkTB
= = =
=
=
OTHER NOISE SOURCES
There are 3 other noise mechanisms that contribute to internally
generated noise in electronic devices.
1. Generation-Recombination Noise - The result of free carriers
being generated and recombining in semiconductor material. Can
consider these generation and recombination events to be random.
This noise process can be treated as shot noise process.
2. Temperature-Fluctuation Noise The result of the fluctuating heat
exchange between a small body, such as transistor, and its
environment due to the fluctuations in the radiation and heat-
conduction processes. If a liquid or gas is flowing past the small
body, fluctuation in heat convection also occurs.
3. Flicker Noise It is characterized by a spectral density that
increases with decreasing frequency. The dependence on spectral
density on frequency is often found to be proportional to the
inverse first power of the frequency. Sometimes referred as one-
over-f noise.
Example 2.2
Calculate the thermal noise power available from any resistor at
room temperature (290 K) for a bandwidth of 1 MHz. Calculate also
the corresponding noise voltage, given that R = 50 O.

Ans
a) Thermal noise power b) Noise voltage

W
kTB N
15
6 23
10 4
10 1 290 10 38 . 1
=
=
=

V
RkTB V
N
895 . 0
10 4 50 4
4
15
=
=
=

Example 2.3
For an electronic device operating at a temperature of
17
o
C with a bandwidth of 10 kHz, determine
a) Thermal noise power in watts and dBm
b) rms noise voltage for a 100 O internal resistance
and 100 O load resistance.
Ans.
a) b)

W
N
17
3 23
10 002 . 4
10 10 290 10 38 . 1
=
=

( )
dBm
N
dBm
134
10 1
10 4
log 10
3
17
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
) ( 127 . 0
10 4 100 4
4
17
rms V
RkTB V
N
=
=
=

Example 2.4
Two resistor of 20 kO and 50 kO are at room
temperature (290 K). For a bandwidth of 100 kHz,
calculate the thermal noise voltage generated by
1. each resistor
2. the two resistor in series
3. the two resistor in parallel

Answer:
a)

b) R
T
=

c) R
T
=

V
kTB R V
N
6
3 23 3
1 1
10 66 . 5
10 100 290 10 38 . 1 10 20 4
4
=
=
=

V
kTB R V
N
6
3 23 3
2 2
10 95 . 8
10 100 290 10 38 . 1 10 50 4
4
=
=
=

O
3 3 3
10 70 10 50 10 20 = +
V
kTB R V
T Ntotal
5
3 23 3
10 06 . 1
10 100 290 10 38 . 1 10 70 4
4
=
=
=

O =

+
k 28 . 14
10 10 50 20
10 ) 50 20 (
3 3
3
V
k
kTB R V
T Ntotal
78 . 4
10 100 290 10 38 . 1 29 . 14 4
4
3 23
=
=
=

CORRELATED NOISE
Mutually related to the signal, not present if there is no
signal
Produced by nonlinear amplification, and include nonlinear
distortion such as harmonic and intermodulation distortion
1. Harmonic Distortion (HD)
Harmonic distortion unwanted harmonics of a signal produced
through nonlinear amplification (nonlinear mixing). Harmonics are
integer multiples of the original signal.
There are various degrees of harmonic distortion.
2
nd
order HT, ratio of the rms amplitude of the second harmonic to
the rms amplitude of the fundamental.
3
rd
oder HT, ratio of the rms amplitude of the third harmonic to
the rms amplitude of the fundamental.
Total harmonic distortion (THD), ratio of the quadratic sum of the
rms values of all the higher harmonics to the rms value of the
fundamental.
Figure 2.7 shows the input and
output frequency spectrums for
a nonlinear device with a single
input frequency f
1
.
Mathematically, THD is

Where,
%THD = percent total harmonic
distortion
v
higher
= quadratic sum of the rms
voltages,
v
fundamental
= rms voltage of the
fundamental frequency
V
1
V
1
V
2
V
3
V
4
Frequency
f
1
f
1
2f
1
3f
1
4f
1
Input signal
Harmonic
distortion
Input frequency spectrum Output frequency spectrum
(a)
Frequency
V
1
V
2
f
1
f
2
V
1
V
2
f
1
f
2
V
sum
V
difference
Input signals
f
1
-f
2
f
1
+f
2
Intermodulation
distortion
Input frequency spectrum Output frequency spectrum
(b)
Figure 2.7: Correlated noise:
(a) Harmonic distortion
(b) Intermodulation distortion
100 THD %
l fundamenta
higher
x
v
v
=
2 2
3
2
2 n
v v v + +
2. Intermodulatin Distortion (ID)
Intermodulation distortion is the generation of unwanted sum
and difference frequency when two or more signal are
amplified in a nonlinear device such as large signal amplifier.
The sum and difference frequencies are called cross products.
Figure 2.7(b) shows the input and output frequency spectrums
for a nonlinear device with two input frequencies (f
1
and f
2
).
Mathematically, the sum and difference frequencies are
Cross products =mf
1
nf
2
Where f
1
and f
2
= fundamental frequencies, f
1
> f
2
m and n = positive integers between one and infinity

Example 2.5
Determine
a) 2
nd
, 3
rd
and 12
th
harmonics for a 1 kHz repetitive wave.
b) Percent 2
nd
order, 3
rd
order and total harmonic distortion for a
fundamental frequency with an amplitude of 8 V
rms
, a 2
nd

harmonic amplitude of 0.2 V
rms
and a 3
rd
harmonic amplitude
of 0.1 V
rms
.
Answer:
a) 2
nd
harmonic = 2fundamental freq. = 21 kHz =2 kHz
3
rd
12
th

b) % 2
nd
order =

% 3
rd
order =

% THD =

% 5 . 2 100
8
2 . 0
100
1
2
= =
V
V
% 25 . 1 100
8
1 . 0
100
1
3
= =
V
V
% 795 . 2 % 100
8
1 . 0 2 . 0
2 2
=
+
Example 2.6
For a nonlinear amplifier with two input frequencies, 3 kHz and 8
kHz, determine,
a) First three harmonics present in the output for each input
frequency.
b) Cross product frequencies for values of m and n of 1 and 2.

Answer: f1 = 8 kHz, f2 = 3 kHz
a)
For freq
in
=3kHz
1
st
harmonic = original signal freq. = 3 kHz
2
nd
harmonic = 2 original signal freq. = 23 kHz =6 kHz
3
rd
For freq
in
=8kHz
1
st
harmonic = original signal freq. = 8 kHz
2
nd
3
rd

b)
m n Cross Product
1 1
83
5kHz and 11kHz
1 2
86
2kHz and 14kHz
2 1
163
13kHz and 19kHz
2 2
166
10kHz and 22kHz

SIGNAL-TO-NOISE RATIO (SNR)
Signal-to-noise power ratio (S/N) is the ratio of the signal power
level to the noise power
Mathematically,

where, P
S
= signal power (watts)
P
N
= noise power (watts)

In dB

S
N
S P
N P
=
( ) 10log
S
N
S P
dB
N P
=
If the input and output resistances of the amplifier,
receiver, or network being evaluated are equal

where V
s
= signal voltage (volts)
V
n
= noise voltage (volts)

2
2
2
( ) 10log 10log
20log
s s
n n
s
n
S V V
dB
N V V
V
V
| | | |
= =
| |
\ . \ .
| |
=
|
\ .
Example 2.7
For an amplifier with an output signal power of 10 W and an output
noise power of 0.01W, determine the S/N.
Ans

Example 2.8
For an amplifier with an output signal voltage of 4 V, an output noise
voltage of 0.005 V and an input and output resistance of 50 O,
determine the S/N.
Ans

] [ 1000
01 . 0
10
/ unitless N S = =

] [ 30 1000 log 10 ) ( / dB dB N S = =

] [ 640000
005 . 0
4
/
2
2
2
2
unitless
R
V
R
V
N S
N
s
= = =
] [ 58 640000 log 10 ) ( / dB dB N S = =
NOISE FACTOR (F) & NOISE FIGURE (NF)
Noise factor and noise figure are figures of merit to indicate how
much a signal deteriorate when it pass through a circuit or a series
of circuits
Noise factor

[unitless]

Noise figure
[dB]

For perfect noiseless circuit, F = 1, NF = 0 dB

input signal-to-noise ratio
output signal-to-noise ratio
F =
input signal-to-noise ratio
10log
output signal-to-noise ratio
10log
NF
F
=
=
For ideal noiseless amplifier with a power gain (A
P
), an input signal
power level (S
i
) and an input noise power level (N
i
) as shows in
Figure 2.8(a). The output signal level is simply A
P
S
i
, and the output
noise level is A
P
N
i
.

[unitless]

Figure 2.8(b) shows a non-ideal amplifier that generates an
internal noise N
d

[unitless]
p i
out i
out p i i
A S
S S
N A N N
= =
p i
out i
out p i d i d p
A S
S S
N A N N N N A
= =
+ +
Figure 2.8: Noise Figure: (a) ideal, noiseless device (b) amplifier with
internally generated noise
Ideal noiseless
amplifier
A
P
= power
gain
=
S
i
N
i
=
A
P
S
i
A
P
N
i
=
S
i
N
i
+ N
d
/ A
P
=
A
P
S
i
A
P
N
i
+ N
d
(a)
Signal power out, S
out
Noise power out, N
out
Signal power out, S
out
Noise power out, N
out
Nonideal amplifier
A
P
= power gain
N
d
= internally
generated noise
(b)
Signal power in,
Noise power in,
S
i
N
i
Signal power in,
Noise power in,
S
i
N
i
When two or more amplifiers are cascaded as shown in
Figure 2.9, the total noise factor is the accumulation of
the individual noise factors. Friiss formula is used to
calculate the total noise factor of several cascaded
amplifiers. Mathematically, Friiss formula is

[unitless]

1 2 1 2 1
3
1
2
1
.....
1 1 1
+ =
n
n
T
A A A
F
A A
F
A
F
F F
Amplifier 1
A
P1
NF
1
Amplifier 2
A
P2
NF
2
Amplifier 3
A
Pn
NF
n
S
i
N
i
(dB)
Input Output
S
o
N
o
S
i
N
i
= +
NF
T
Figure 2.9: Noise figure of cascaded amplifiers
Where
F
T
= total noise factor for n cascaded amplifiers
F
1
, F
2
, F
3
n
= noise factor, amplifier 1,2,3n
A
1
, A
2
. A
n
= power gain, amplifier 1,2,..n

Notification remarks
Change unit of all noise factors F and power gains A from
[dB] to [unitless] before insert its into Friss formula
equation.
Example 2.9
The input signal to a telecommunications receiver consists of 100 W
of signal power and 1 W of noise power. The receiver contributes an
additional 80 W of noise, N
D
, and has a power gain of 20 dB.
Compute the input SNR, the output SNR and the receivers noise figure.

Ans.
a) Input SNR =

Input SNR(dB) =

] [ 20 100 log 10 dB =
] [ 100 unitless
10 1
10 100
N
S
6 -
-6
i
i
=
=
b) The output noise power = internal noise + amplified input noise

The output signal power = amplified input signal

Output SNR=

Output SNR(dB) =
] [ 10 8 . 1
) 10 1 100 ( 80
4
6
W
W W N A N N
i p D out
=
+ = + =

] [ 10 1
10 100 100
2
6
W
S A S
i p out
=
= =
] [ 56 . 55
10 1.8
10 1
4 -
-2
unitless
N
S
out
out
=
=
] [ 45 . 17 56 . 55 log 10 dB =

c) Noise Figure NF =

56 . 55
100
log 10
] [
] [
log 10 =
unitless SNR output
unitless SNR input

] [ 55 . 2 dB =
Example 2.10
For a non-ideal amplifier and the following parameters,
determine
Input signal power = 2 x 10
-10
W
Input noise power = 2 x 10
-18
W
Power Gain = 1,000,000
Internal Noise (N
d
) = 6 x 10
-12
W

a. Input S/N ratio (dB)
b. Output S/N ratio (dB)
c. Noise factor and noise figure

Ans
a) Input SNR

Input SNR(dB) =
b) The output noise power

The output signal power

Output SNR(dB)

] [ 10 1
10 2
10 2
8
18 -
-10
unitless
N
S
i
i
=
=
] [ 80 100000000 log 10 dB =
] [ 10 8
) 10 2 10 1 ( 10 6
12
18 6 12
W
N A N N
i p D out

=
+ = + =

] [ 10 2
10 2 10 1
4
10 6
W
S A S
i p out
=
= =

] [ 74 log 10 dB
10 8
10 2
12 -
-4
=
=
c)
Noise factor F =

Noise figure NF =
] [ 4
25000000
100000000
] [
] [
unitless
unitless SNR output
unitless SNR input
= =
] [ 02 . 6 4 log 10 dB =
Example 2.11
For three cascaded amplifier stages, each with noise figures of 3 dB and
power gains of 10 dB, determine the total noise figure.
Ans.
Change all noise figure and power gain from [dB] unit to [unitless]
Power gain

Noise Factor
Using Friss formula ,
Total noise factor

Total noise figure NF
T
=

] [ 10 10
10
10
3 2 1
unitless A A A = = = =

] [ 2 10
10
3
3 2 1
unitless F F F = = = =
] [
1 1
2 1
3
1
2
1
unitless
A A
F
A
F
F F
T

+
+ =
] [ 11 . 2
10 10
1 2
10
1 2
2
unitless =

+ =

] [ 24 . 3 11 . 2 log 10 dB =
EQUIVALENT NOISE TEMPERATURE (T
e
)
The noise produced from thermal agitation is directly proportional
to temperature, thermal noise can be expressed in degrees as well
as watts or dBm.
Mathematically,

where T = environmental temperature (kelvin)
N = noise power (watts)
K = Boltzmanns constant (1.38 x 10
-23
J/K)
B = bandwidth (hertz)
KB
N
T =
T
e
is a hypothetical value that cannot be directly measured
Convenient parameter often used . Its also indicates reduction in the
signal-to-noise ratio a signal undergoes as it propagates through a
receiver.
The lower the T
e
, the better the quality of a receiver.
Typically values for T
e
, range from (20 K 1000 K) for noisy receivers.
Mathematically,

Where T
e
=equivalent noise temperature (kelvin)
T = environmental temperature (290 K)
F = noise factor (unitless)
Conversely, F can be represented as a function of T
e
:

( ) 1 = F T T
e
T
T
F
e
+ =1
Example 2.12
Determine,
a) Noise figure for an equivalent noise temperature of 75 K.
b) Equivalent noise temperature for noise figure of 6 dB.
Ans.
a) Noise factor

Noise figure NF =

b) Noise factor

Equivalent noise temperature

] [ 258 . 1
290
75
1 1 unitless
T
T
F
e
= + = + =
] [ 1 258 . 1 log 10 dB =

] [ 4 )
10
6
log( )
10
log( unitless anti
NF
anti F = = =

] [ 870
) 1 4 ( 290 ) 1 (
K
F T T
e
=
= =

NOISE MEASUREMENTS
To work with noise in communications systems, it
must be measured in a meaningful way.
Noise is a random process & does not have a single
value or an equation to describe it.
The root mean square (rms) value of the noise is
the most important fact.
rms value is formed by taking the square root of the
average of the individual noise voltages, which have
been squared.

Consider a series of 10 noise values measured with a
voltmeter as -0.3, 1.0, 0.2, 0.5, 0.6, -0.6, 0.3, 0.1, -0.15
and 0.9 V.
They are squared so that the negative values become
positive, & then these squared values are averaged.
The sum of the squares is

The average is

( ) ( )
2 2
2
2 2 2 2
2
1 . 0 3 . 0 6 . 0 6 . 0 5 . 0 2 . 0 1 3 . 0 + + + + + + + =
( )
2
2
9 . 0 15 . 0 .... + +
2
0325 . 3 V =
2
30325 . 0
10
0325 . 3
V = =
The square root of this mean is

Example 2.13
Noise values in mV as follows are measured at various
times: 10, -100, 35, -57, 90, 26, 26, -10, -15 and -20.
What is the rms noise value?
Squaring each value, we have:
100 + 10,000 + 1225 + 3249 + 8100 + 676 + 676 + 100 +
225 + 400 = 24,751 (mV)
2

The average value is 24,751/10 = 2475.1 (mV)
2
.
The rms value = 49.75 mV.

V 55 . 0 30325 . 0 = =

Communication System

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Communication System

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

CHAPTER 2: Noise

By Dr Khairun Nidzam bin Ramli

BEB31803 ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

BEB31803 ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

BEB31803 ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

You might also like