Utilization of Assessment

Data
Norm-Referenced Interpretation
Score tells how a student
compares with other persons who
have taken the same test.
His score is the highest in class.
He must be good!
His score is low compared to
those in Section 1.

Norm-referenced Interpretation
What to do
sorting the test papers to know how a student
ranks in class

Median
Top 50%
Bottom 50%
Norm-referenced Interpretation
getting the average of the class and
locating a score whether it is below or
above it
average / mean
Below the
mean
Above the
mean
Displaying Data
Data are tabulated to introduce some
order of the data and make them more
interpretable. Three methods of tabulating
data are listing, simple frequency
distribution, and grouped frequency
distributions. While each method has its
advantages and disadvantages, the grouped
frequency distribution is usaully most
appropriate.

Frequency
is the term used to describe the very common-sense
sort of tallying procedure, such as how frequent a
score of 69 is in set/table of scores. Frequency can
be used to indicate how many pupils did the same
thing on a certain task or how many pupils have a
certain characteristic, or how many pupils fall into a
certain set of categories. Frequencies are valuable
because they can summarize data and thereby
reveal patterns that might not other wise be noticed.
Frequency is one numerical tool for reorganizing the
data in an interval scale into a nominal scale.
Tabulating Frequency Data

1)The List Simply list the scores in ascending or
descending numerical order
Example: List the set of 25 scores in descending
order
96 72 54 48 43
93 66 54 47 36
88 63 51 45 35
84 63 51 45 30
81 57 48 45 27

Introducing some order or sense into this
group of scores makes trends, patterns, and
individual scores easier to find and to interpret.
At a glance we can now determine the highest
score, lowest score, and even the middle score.
We can easily see that only five students scored
above 80 on the test. Thus listing has helped us
organize this set of scores. But what if we had
50 scores, or more scores?

2. The Simple Frequency Distribution
summarizes data effectively only if the spread
of scores is small. If there is a large amount of
variation in test scores, full of zeros in the
frequency column and with so many categories
that it becomes difficult to interpret the data.

Example of Simple Frequency Distribution
3. The Grouped Frequency Distribution- is very
similar to the simple frequency distribution,
except that ranges or intervals of scores are
used for categories rather than considering
each possible score as a category. The following
is a grouped frequency distribution for the 25
scores weve been talking about:

Interval f
91-97 2
84-90 2
77-83 1
70-76 1
63-69 3
56-62 1
49-55 4
42-48 7
35-41 2
28-34 1
21-27 1
Graphic Display of
Frequencies
A histogram or bar graph of the
frequencies of a set of scores is normally
displayed by assigning score values to the
horizontal line (x-axis) and putting the
possible frequency values on the vertical
line (y-axis). An x, asterisk, dot or other
symbol is then marked to represent each
pupil who received each score.
Histogram
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
The Frequency Polygon use straight lines
to connect the midpoints of each interval,
which vary in height depending on the
frequency of scores in the interval.

24 31 38 45 73 66 59 52 80 87 94
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Midpoint
F
R
E
Q
U
E
N
C
Y
Grouping of scores into a class
frequency distribution shows whether
the distribution is normal or skewed. It
also indicates the relative difficulty of
the test from which the scores are
taken.
If most of the scores are massed at the middle
portion of the frequency table, the distribution is
normal and the test is of moderate difficulty.
If most of the scores are gathered at the upper
portion of the distribution, the distribution is
skewed to the left or skewed negatively. The test
is relatively easy for the students.
If the majority of the scores are clustered at the
lower portion of the distribution, the distribution
is skewed to the right or skewed positively and
the test is relatively difficult.
The Smooth Curve
SYMMETRICAL AND ASYMMETRICAL
DISTRIBUTIONS
In a symmetrical distribution each
half or side of the distribtuion is a
mirror image of the other side.
An asymmetrical distribution, has
nonmatching sides or halves.
Positively Skewed Distribution

A positively skewed distribution results
from an asymmetrical distribution of
scores. In this case, the majority of
scores fall below the middle of the
score distribution. There are many low
scores, but few high scores. A
positively skewed distribution is
illustrated below.
LOW HIGH
SCORES
In a classroom situation a positively
skewed distribution indicates the class did poorly
on the test (a mjority of low scores and few high
scores). The resons for such poor performance
could include that the test was too difficult,
teaching was ineffective, the students didnt
study, or not enough time was allowed.

Negatively Skewed Distribution
A negatively skewed distribution also results
from an asymmetrical score distrribution. In
this type of distribution the majority of scores
fall above the middle of the score distribution.
There are many high scores, but few low
scores. A negatively skewed distribution is
illustrated below. One interpretation attached
to a negatively skewed distribution is that the
class did well on the test (a majority had high
scores and few had low scores). The test may
have been too easy, too much time may have
been allowed, the class may be exceptionally
bright, and so forth.
Descriptive Statistics
At a minimum, teachers should examine the
descriptive statistics whenever they administer a test.
Descriptive statistics are numerical representations of
how a group of pupils performed on a test. Two
aspects of group behavior are considered in
descriptive statistics: the middle of the group and the
individuals. Both are important because the user of
the test results must be able to visualize the middle
(or typical) behavior of the group as well as the
performances of those pupils who varied from the
typical behavior. In statistical terms, these two
aspects of group behavior are called central tendency
and dispersion.
Measures of Central Tendency
describes the most typical behavior of a
group. Three statistical measures are
used for estimating central tendency:
the mean, the median and the mode.

Mean
The mean (x said ex bar) is probably
the single most important indicator /
measure of central tendency because it
is the most reliable or the most stable or
the most dependable. It is widely used
especially when the distribution is
normal.
How to Compute Mean for
Ungrouped Data
Example:

X
1
= 10, X
2
= 12, X
3
= 15, X
4
= 18 and X
5
= 20
N
X X X X X
X
5 4 3 2 1 + + + +
=
5
20 18 15 12 10 + + + +
=
5
75
=
or 15 =
15
5
75
= = =

N
X
X
How to compute Mean for
Grouped Data
Example

Class Interval

(1)

(2)

(3)

f

X

fx

45 49
40 44
35 39
30 34
25 29
20 24
15 19
10 14
5 9


1
2
3
6
8
17
26
11
2
N = 76
47
42
37
32
27
22
17
12
7


47
84
111
192
216
374
442
132
14
fx = 1612
N
fx
x

=
76
1612
= x
21 . 21 = x
Median
The median is that point below which
50% of the scores fall and which 50% is
above. It is used when a distribution
departs from normal and to avoid the
undue influence of the extreme scores.

How to Compute Median
for Ungrouped Data
Example 1:

10, 12, 18, 20, 15
thus
10, 12, 15, 18, 20 the median is 15
the middle score.
Example 2:

21, 23, 24, 25, 26, 30
Median is 24.5 the average of the
two middle scores 24 and 25.
How to Compute Median
for Grouped Data
Class Interval
45-49
40-44
35-39
30-34
25-29
20-24
15-19
10-14
5-9
f
1
2
3
6
8
17
26
11
2
cf
76
75
73
70
64
56
39
13
2
c%
100
98.7
96.1
92.1
84.2
73.7
51.3
17.1
2.6
N=76
Example
5
26
13
2
76
5 14 * .

+ =
= 19.31
i
f
cf
N
ll Median

+ =
2
Mode
The mode is that score which occurs
most frequently. Mode can mean
fashionable. Mode would be that score
which is most fashionable or the one
received by the most pupils. Note that a
set of scores can have two or more
modes. Such distribution of scores are
referred to as being bimodal, trimodal or
multimodal.
Mode for Ungrouped Data
Consider the observation
17

11

13

15

16

12

17

15

13

15

14

11

12

18

13

13

13

16

14

12

Measures of Variability
Is a numerical index which indicates the
extent to which the scores of a group
tend to scatter (disperse, spread) above
and below a central point in the
distribution. The three most frequently
encountered measures of variability are
the range, the standard deviation and
the quartile deviation.
Although measures of central tendency are very useful
statistics for describing a set of data, they are not
sufficient. Two sets of data that are very different can
have identical means or medians. As an example,
consider the following sets of data:
The mean of both sets of scores is 80 and the median
of both is also 80, but set A is very different from set B.
In set A the scores are all very close together and
clustered around the mean. In set B, the scores are
much more spread out, in other words, there is much
more variation or variability in set B.
SET A:

79

79

79

80

81

81

81

SET B:

60

60

70

80

90

100

100

Range
Is simply the difference between the
highest score and the lowest score plus
one (HS-LS + 1). It is the counterpart of
the mode, it is also unreliable and
because of this it is seldom used.
Range = HS LS + 1
Example 1: 80, 79, 81, 79, 81, 81, 79
Range = HS LS + 1
= 81 79 + 1
= 3

Range = HS LS + 1
Example 2; 100, 80, 50, 70, 60, 90, 110
Range = 110 50 + 1
= 61

Quartile Deviation
Is defined as one half the distance
between quartile one and quartile three.
It is the counterpart of the median. Just
like the median it is used to avoid the
undue influence of the extreme scores.

Class Interval
45-49
40-44
35-39
30-34
25-29
20-24
15-19
10-14
5-9
f
1
2
3
6
8
17
26
11
2
cf
76
75
73
70
64
56
39
13
2
N=76
Example
i
f
cf
N
ll Q

|
.
|

\
|
+ =
4
1
5
26
13
4
76
5 14 * .

|
.
|

\
|
+ =
65 15 1 . = Q
Class Interval
45-49
40-44
35-39
30-34
25-29
20-24
15-19
10-14
5-9
f
1
2
3
6
8
17
26
11
2
cf
76
75
73
70
64
56
39
13
2
N=76
Example
i
f
cf
N
ll Q

|
.
|

\
|
+ =
4
3
3
5
8
56 57
5 24 * .

+ =
125 25 3 . = Q
2
1 3 Q Q
Q

=
2
65 15 125 25 . .
=
74 4. = Q
Standard Deviation
Is the counterpart of the mean. It is the
most widely used measure of variability
because it is the most reliable/stable. It
is used when the distribution is normal.
Example
Scores
X
26
24
22
20
18
16
14
10
6
4

Deviation
x
10
8
6
4
2
0
-2
-6
-10
-12

Score
x
2

100
64
36
16
4
0
4
36
100
144

=160 X

= 0 504 =

x
2
16 = x
10 = N
1
=

N
X
SD
2
9
504
=
56 =
5 7 483 7 . . or =
Example:
Class
Interval
45-49
40-44
35-39
30-34
25-29
20-24
15-19
10-14
5-9

f

1
2
3
6
8
17
26
11
2
x

47
42
37
32
27
22
17
12
7
fx

47
84
111
192
216
374
442
132
14
fx
2

2209
3528
4107
6144
5832
8228
7514
1584
98
76 = N
=1612 fx 39244 =

fx
2
21 21
76
1612
. = = =

N
fx
x
) . ( 21 21
76
39244
=
2
86 449 37 516 . . =
51 66. =
16 8 155 8 . . or =
x
N
fx
SD =

2
2
The Normal Curve
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 +1 + 2 +3 + 4
13.59% 34.13% 34.13% 13.59%
2.14%
0.13%
2.14%
0.13%
Percent of cases
under portions of
the normal curve
Standard
Deviations
Cumulative Percentages
0.1% 2.3% 15.9% 50.0% 84.1% 97.7% 99.9%
Percentile
Equivalents
1 3 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 95 99
Q
1
Md Q
3

mean new the deviation) standard (new score standard + = z
A common form for these transformations is based upon a mean of
50 and a standard deviation of 10. In equation from this becomes:
( ) 50 10 + = z score standard
or, starting with the raw scores, we have:
( )
( ) 50 10 +

=
s
X X
score standard
Comparing and Combining
Scores Made on Different
Tests by the Use of
Standard Scores
Part A: Raw Scores
Pupil English Science Math
A 60 140 40
B 72 100 36
C 46 110 24
etc.
Mean 60 100 22
Standard
deviation

10

20

6
Part B: Standard Scores
Pupil English Science Math Average
A 50 70 80 67
B 62 50 73 62
C 36 55 53 48
etc.
( ) 50 10 +

=
s
X X
Score Standard
( )
50
50 0
5 10
10
60 60
=
+ =
+

=
( )
62
50 12
50
10
120
50 10
10
60 72
=
+ =
+ =
+

=
The standard score in English
for pupil A in this test is:
The English score for pupil B
becomes:
Thank you!!!