Special Casting Processes

2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e

Shell Molding
Casting process in which the mold is a thin shell of
sand held together by thermosetting resin binder

Figure 11.5 Steps in shell-molding: (1) a match-plate or
cope-and-drag metal pattern is heated and placed over a
box containing sand mixed with thermosetting resin.
2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
Shell Molding
Figure 11.5 Steps in shell-molding: (2) box is inverted so that
sand and resin fall onto the hot pattern, causing a layer of the
mixture to partially cure on the surface to form a hard shell; (3)
box is repositioned so that loose uncured particles drop away;

Shell Molding
Figure 11.5 Steps in shell-molding: (4) sand shell is heated in
oven for several minutes to complete curing; (5) shell mold is
stripped from the pattern;

Shell Molding

Figure 11.5 Steps in shell-molding: (6) two halves of the shell mold are
assembled, supported by sand or metal shot in a box, and pouring is
accomplished; (7) the finished casting with sprue removed.
From www.janfa.com
Advantages and Disadvantages
Advantages of shell molding:
Smoother cavity surface permits easier flow of
molten metal and better surface finish
Good dimensional accuracy - machining often
not required
Mold collapsibility minimizes cracks in casting
Can be mechanized for mass production
Disadvantages:
More expensive metal pattern
Difficult to justify for small quantities
Die Casting

A permanent mold casting process in which molten
metal is injected into mold cavity under high
pressure
Pressure is maintained during solidification, then
mold is opened and part is removed
Molds in this casting operation are called dies;
hence the name die casting
Use of high pressure to force metal into die cavity is
what distinguishes this from other permanent mold
processes
Die casting is a manufacturing process that can produce
geometrically complex metal parts through the use of
reusable molds, called dies.

The die casting process involves the use of a furnace,
metal, die casting machine, and die.

The metal, typically a non-ferrous alloy such as aluminum
or zinc, is melted in the furnace and then injected into the
dies in the die casting machine.

There are two main types of die casting machines -
Hot chamber machines and Cold chamber machines

Hot-Chamber Die Casting
Metal is melted in a container, and a piston injects
liquid metal under high pressure into the die
High production rates - 500 parts per hour not
uncommon
Applications limited to low melting point metals that
do not chemically attack plunger and other
mechanical components
Casting metals: zinc, tin, lead, and magnesium
Hot-Chamber Die Casting

Figure 11.13 Cycle in hot-chamber casting: (1) with die closed
and plunger withdrawn, molten metal flows into the chamber (2)
plunger forces metal in chamber to flow into die, maintaining
pressure during cooling and solidification.
Cold-Chamber Die Casting Machine
Molten metal is poured into unheated chamber
from external melting container, and a piston
injects metal under high pressure into die cavity
High production but not usually as fast as
hot-chamber machines because of pouring step
Casting metals: aluminum, brass, and
magnesium alloys
Advantages of hot-chamber process favor its use
on low melting-point alloys (zinc, tin, lead)
Cold-Chamber Die Casting

Figure 11.14 Cycle in cold-chamber casting: (1) with die
closed and ram withdrawn, molten metal is poured into
the chamber
Cold-Chamber Die Casting

Figure 11.14 Cycle in cold-chamber casting: (2) ram forces metal
to flow into die, maintaining pressure during cooling and
solidification.
Molds for Die Casting
Usually made of tool steel, mold steel, or maraging
steel
Tungsten and molybdenum (good refractory
qualities) used to die cast steel and cast iron
Ejector pins required to remove part from die when it
opens
Lubricants must be sprayed into cavities to prevent
sticking
Advantages and Limitations
Advantages of die casting:
Economical for large production quantities
Good accuracy and surface finish
Thin sections are possible
Rapid cooling provides small grain size and
good strength to casting
Disadvantages:
Generally limited to metals with low metal
points
Part geometry must allow removal from die
In Investment casting the mold is formed by using a
wax pattern - a disposable piece in the shape of the
desired part.

The pattern is surrounded, or "invested", into
ceramic slurry that hardens into the mold.

The wax pattern is melted out of the mold after it
has been formed.

The mold is destroyed during the process, parts with
complex geometries and intricate details can be
created.

Investment Casting (Lost-wax Casting)

Investment casting can make use of most metals, most
commonly using aluminum alloys, bronze alloys,
magnesium alloys, cast iron, stainless steel, and tool steel.

This process is beneficial for casting metals with high
melting temperatures that can not be molded in plaster or
metal.

Parts that are typically made by investment casting include
those with complex geometry such as turbine blades or
firearm components.

High temperature applications are also common, which
includes parts for the automotive, aircraft, and military
industries.

Investment Casting

Figure 11.8 Steps in investment casting: (1) wax patterns are
produced, (2) several patterns are attached to a sprue to form
a pattern tree
Investment Casting

Figure 11.8 Steps in investment casting: (3) the pattern tree is coated
with a thin layer of refractory material, (4) the full mold is formed by
covering the coated tree with sufficient refractory material to make
it rigid
Investment Casting

Figure 11.8 Steps in investment casting: (5) the mold is held in an
inverted position and heated to melt the wax and permit it to drip out
of the cavity, (6) the mold is preheated to a high temperature, the
molten metal is poured, and it solidifies
Investment Casting

Figure 11.8 Steps in investment casting: (7) the mold is
broken away from the finished casting and the parts are
separated from the sprue
Investment Casting
Figure 11 9 A one-piece compressor stator with 108
separate airfoils made by investment casting (photo
courtesy of Howmet Corp.).
Centrifugal Casting
A family of casting processes in which the mold is
rotated at high speed so centrifugal force distributes
molten metal to outer regions of die cavity
The group includes:
True centrifugal casting
Semicentrifugal casting
Centrifuge casting
True Centrifugal Casting
Molten metal is poured into rotating mold to produce a
tubular part
In some operations, mold rotation commences after
pouring rather than before
Parts: pipes, tubes, bushings, and rings
Outside shape of casting can be round, octagonal,
hexagonal, etc , but inside shape is (theoretically)
perfectly round, due to radially symmetric forces
True Centrifugal Casting
Figure 11.15 Setup for true centrifugal casting.

Semicentrifugal Casting
Centrifugal force is used to produce solid castings
rather than tubular parts
Molds are designed with risers at center to supply
feed metal
Density of metal in final casting is greater in outer
sections than at center of rotation
Often used on parts in which center of casting is
machined away, thus eliminating the portion where
quality is lowest
Examples: wheels and pulleys
A casting that has solidified before completely
filling mold cavity
Figure 11.22 Some common defects in castings: (a) misrun
General Defects: Misrun
Two portions of metal flow together but there is
a lack of fusion due to premature freezing
Figure 11.22 Some common defects in castings: (b) cold shut
General Defects: Cold Shut
Metal splatters during pouring and solid globules
form and become entrapped in casting
Figure 11.22 Some common defects in castings: (c) cold shot
General Defects: Cold Shot
Depression in surface or internal void caused by
solidification shrinkage that restricts amount of
molten metal available in last region to freeze
Figure 11.22 Some common defects in castings: (d) shrinkage cavity
General Defects: Shrinkage Cavity
Balloon-shaped gas cavity caused by release of
mold gases during pouring
Figure 11.23 Common defects in sand castings: (a) sand blow
Sand Casting Defects: Sand Blow
Formation of many small gas cavities at or slightly
below surface of casting
Figure 11.23 Common defects in sand castings: (b) pin holes
Sand Casting Defects: Pin Holes
When fluidity of liquid metal is high, it may penetrate
into sand mold or core, causing casting surface to
consist of a mixture of sand grains and metal
Figure 11.23 Common defects in sand castings: (e) penetration
Sand Casting Defects: Penetration
A step in cast product at parting line caused by
sidewise relative displacement of cope and drag
Figure 11.23 Common defects in sand castings: (f) mold shift
Sand Casting Defects: Mold Shift
Additional Steps After Solidification
Trimming
Removing the core
Surface cleaning
Inspection
Repair, if required
Heat treatment
Trimming
Removal of sprues, runners, risers, parting-line flash,
fins, chaplets, and any other excess metal from the
cast part
For brittle casting alloys and when cross sections
are relatively small, appendages can be broken off
Otherwise, hammering, shearing, hack-sawing,
band-sawing, abrasive wheel cutting, or various
torch cutting methods are used
Removing the Core
If cores have been used, they must be removed
Most cores are bonded, and they often fall out of
casting as the binder deteriorates
In some cases, they are removed by shaking
casting, either manually or mechanically
In rare cases, cores are removed by chemically
dissolving bonding agent
Solid cores must be hammered or pressed out
Surface Cleaning
Removal of sand from casting surface and otherwise
enhancing appearance of surface
Cleaning methods: tumbling, air-blasting with coarse
sand grit or metal shot, wire brushing, buffing, and
chemical pickling
Surface cleaning is most important for sand casting
In many permanent mold processes, this step
can be avoided
Defects are possible in casting, and inspection is
needed to detect their presence
Heat Treatment
Castings are often heat treated to enhance
properties
Reasons for heat treating a casting:
For subsequent processing operations such as
machining
To bring out the desired properties for the
application of the part in service
Casting Quality
There are numerous opportunities for things to go
wrong in a casting operation, resulting in quality
defects in the product
The defects can be classified as follows:
General defects common to all casting processes
Defects related to sand casting process
Foundry Inspection Methods
Visual inspection to detect obvious defects such as
misruns, cold shuts, and severe surface flaws
Dimensional measurements to insure that
tolerances have been met
Metallurgical, chemical, physical, and other tests
concerned with quality of cast metal
Furnaces for Casting Processes
Furnaces most commonly used in foundries:
Cupolas
Direct fuel-fired furnaces
Crucible furnaces
Electric-arc furnaces
Induction furnaces
2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e Cupola Furnace
Cupola furnaces are tall, cylindrical furnaces used to
melt iron and ferrous alloys in foundry operations.
Alternating layers of metal and ferrous alloys, coke, and
limestone are fed into the furnace from the top.
The molten metal flows out of a spout at the bottom of
the cupola. .
The cupola consists of a vertical cylindrical steel sheet
and lined inside with acid refractory bricks.
The lining is generally thicker in the lower portion of
the cupola as the temperature are higher than in upper
portion
There is a charging door through which coke, pig iron,
steel scrap and flux is charged
The blast is blown through the tuyeres

These tuyeres are arranged in one or more row
around the periphery of cupola
Hot gases which ascends from the bottom
(combustion zone) preheats the iron in the
preheating zone
Cupolas are provided with a drop bottom door
through which debris, consisting of coke, slag etc.
can be discharged at the end of the melt
A slag hole is provided to remove the slag from the
melt
Through the tap hole molten metal is poured into the
ladle
At the top conical cap called the spark arrest is
provided to prevent the spark emerging to outside

Electric-Arc Furnaces
Charge is melted by heat generated from an electric arc
High power consumption, but electric-arc furnaces can be
designed for high melting capacity
Used primarily for melting steel
Induction Furnaces
Uses alternating current passing through a coil to develop magnetic
field in metal
Induced current causes rapid heating and melting
Electromagnetic force field also causes mixing action in liquid metal
Since metal does not contact heating elements, environment can
be closely controlled to produce molten metals of high quality and
purity
Melting steel, cast iron, and aluminum alloys are common
applications in foundry work
Ladles
Moving molten metal from melting furnace to
mold is sometimes done using crucibles
More often, transfer is accomplished by ladles

Figure 11.21 Two common types of ladles: (a) crane ladle,
and (b) two-man ladle.
Metals for Casting
Most commercial castings are made of alloys rather
than pure metals
Alloys are generally easier to cast, and properties
of product are better
Casting alloys can be classified as:
Ferrous
Nonferrous
Ferrous Casting Alloys: Cast Iron
Most important of all casting alloys
Tonnage of cast iron castings is several times that
of all other metals combined
Several types: (1) gray cast iron, (2) nodular iron, (3)
white cast iron, (4) malleable iron, and (5) alloy cast
irons
Typical pouring temperatures 1400C (2500F),
depending on composition
Ferrous Casting Alloys: Steel
The mechanical properties of steel make it an
attractive engineering material
The capability to create complex geometries makes
casting an attractive shaping process
Difficulties when casting steel:
Pouring temperature of steel is higher than for
most other casting metals 1650C (3000F)
At such temperatures, steel readily oxidizes, so
molten metal must be isolated from air
Molten steel has relatively poor fluidity
Nonferrous Casting Alloys: Aluminum
Generally considered to be very castable
Pouring temperatures low due to low melting
temperature of aluminum
T
m
= 660C (1220F)
Properties:
Light weight
Range of strength properties by heat treatment
Easy to machine
Nonferrous Casting Alloys: Copper Alloys
Includes bronze, brass, and aluminum bronze
Properties:
Corrosion resistance
Attractive appearance
Good bearing qualities
Limitation: high cost of copper
Applications: pipe fittings, marine propeller blades,
pump components, ornamental jewelry
Nonferrous Casting Alloys: Zinc Alloys
Highly castable, commonly used in die casting
Low melting point melting point of zinc T
m
= 419C
(786F)
Good fluidity for ease of casting
Properties:
Low creep strength, so castings cannot be
subjected to prolonged high stresses
Composite Materials
Introduction
A Composite material is a material system
composed of two or more macro constituents that
differ in shape and chemical composition and which
are insoluble in each other. The history of
composite materials dates back to early 20th
century. In 1940, fiber glass was first used to
reinforce epoxy.
Applications:
Aerospace industry
Sporting Goods Industry
Automotive Industry
Home Appliance Industry

Advanced Aerospace
Application:

Lear Fan 2100 all-composite
aircraft
Advanced Aerospace
Application:

Boeing 767 (and in 777, 787 airplanes w/ the latest, full wing box is composite):
Composites:
-- Multiphase material w/significant
proportions of each phase.
Dispersed phase:
-- Purpose: enhance matrix properties.
MMC: increase sy, TS, creep resist.
CMC: increase K
c
PMC: increase E, sy, TS, creep resist.
-- Classification: Particle, fiber, structural
Matrix:
-- The continuous phase
-- Purpose is to:
- transfer stress to other phases
- protect phases from environment
-- Classification: MMC, CMC, PMC
metal ceramic polymer
Reprinted with permission from
D. Hull and T.W. Clyne, An Introduction to
Composite Materials, 2nd ed., Cambridge
University Press, New York, 1996, Fig. 3.6, p.
47.
Terminology/Classification
woven
fibers
cross
section
view
0.5 mm
0.5 mm
Composite Classification
Large-
particle
Dispersion-
strengthened
Particle-reinforced
Continuous
(aligned)
Aligned Randomly
oriented
Discontinuous
(short)
Fiber-reinforced
Laminates Sandwich
panels
Structural
Composites
Adapted from Fig. 16.2,
Callister 7e.
CMCs: Increased toughness
Composite Benefits
fiber-reinf
un-reinf
particle-reinf
Force
Bend displacement
PMCs: Increased E/r
E(GPa)
G=3E/8
K=E
Density, r [mg/m
3
]
.1 .3 1 3 10 30
.01
.1
1
10
10
2
10
3
metal/
metal alloys
polymers
PMCs
ceramics
Adapted from T.G. Nieh, "Creep rupture of a silicon-
carbide reinforced aluminum composite", Metall.
Trans. A Vol. 15(1), pp. 139-146, 1984. Used with
permission.
MMCs:
Increased
creep
resistance
20 30 50 100 200
10
-10
10
-8
10
-6
10
-4
6061 Al
6061 Al
w/SiC
whiskers
s (MPa)
e
ss
(s
-1
)
Composite Survey: Particle-I
Examples:
Callister 7e. (Fig. 10.19 is
copyright United States
Steel Corporation, 1971.)
- Spheroidite
steel
matrix:
ferrite (a)
(ductile)
particles:
cementite
( Fe
3
C )
(brittle)
60 mm
courtesy Carboloy
Systems, Department,
General Electric
Company.)
- WC/Co
cemented
carbide
matrix:
cobalt
(ductile)
particles:
WC
(brittle,
hard) V
m
:
5-12 vol%!
600 mm
courtesy Goodyear Tire
and Rubber Company.)
- Automobile
tires
matrix:
rubber
(compliant)
particles:
C
(stiffer)
0.75 mm
Particle-reinforced Fiber-reinforced Structural
Composite Survey: Particle-II
Concrete gravel + sand + cement
- Why sand and gravel? Sand packs into gravel voids
Reinforced concrete - Reinforce with steel rebar or remesh
- increases strength - even if cement matrix is cracked
Prestressed concrete - remesh under tension during setting of concrete.
Tension release puts concrete under compressive force
- Concrete much stronger under compression.
- Applied tension must exceed compressive force
threaded
rod
nut
Post tensioning tighten nuts to put under rod under tension
but concrete under compression
Elastic modulus, E
c
, of composites:
-- two approaches.
Application to other properties:
-- Electrical conductivity, se: Replace E in the above equations
with se.
-- Thermal conductivity, k: Replace E in above equations with k.
Callister 7e. (Fig. 16.3 is from
R.H. Krock, ASTM Proc, Vol.
63, 1963.)
Composite Survey: Particle-III
lower limit:
1
E
c
=
V
m
E
m
+
V
p
E
p
c m m
upper limit:
E
=
V E
+
V p E p
rule of mixtures
Data:
Cu matrix
w/tungsten
particles
0 20 4 0 6 0 8 0 10 0
150
20 0
250
30 0
350
vol% tungsten
E(GPa)
(Cu)
( W)
Composite Survey: Fiber
Fibers themselves are very strong
Provide significant strength improvement to material
Ex: fiber-glass
Continuous glass filaments in a polymer matrix
Strength due to fibers
Polymer simply holds them in place and environmentally
protects them
Fiber Loading Effect under
Stress:
Critical fiber length (l
C
) for effective stiffening & strengthening:
Ex: For fiberglass, a fiber length > 15 mm is needed since this length
provides a Continuous fiber based on usual glass fiber properties
c
f
d
t
s
15 length fiber
fiber diameter
shear strength of
fiber-matrix interface
fiber strength in tension
Why? Longer fibers carry stress more efficiently!
Shorter, thicker fiber:
c
f
d
t
s
15 length fiber
Longer, thinner fiber:
Poorer fiber efficiency
Callister 7e.
c
f
d
t
s
15 length fiber
Better fiber efficiency
s (x)
s (x)
Fiber Materials
Whiskers - Thin single crystals - large length to diameter ratio
graphite, SiN, SiC
high crystal perfection extremely strong, strongest known
very expensive

Fibers
polycrystalline or amorphous
generally polymers or ceramics
Ex: Al
2
O
3
, Aramid, E-glass, Boron, UHMWPE
Wires
Metal steel, Mo, W
Fiber Alignment
aligned
continuous
aligned random
discontinuous
Callister 7e.
Composite Strength: Longitudinal Loading
Continuous fibers - Estimate fiber-reinforced
composite strength for long continuous fibers in a
matrix

Longitudinal deformation
s
c
= s
m
V
m
+ s
f
V
f
but e
c
= e
m
= e
f

volume fraction isostrain
E
ce
= E
m
V
m
+ E
f
V
f
longitudinal (extensional)
modulus
m m
f f
m
f
V E
V E
F
F
f = fiber
m = matrix
Remembering: E = s/e and
note, this model
corresponds to the upper
bound for particulate
composites
Composite Strength: Transverse Loading
In transverse loading the fibers carry less of
the load and are in a state of isostress

s
c
= s
m
= s
f
= s e
c
= e
m
V
m
+ e
f
V
f

f
f
m
m
ct
E
V
E
V
E

1
transverse modulus

Remembering: E = s/e
and note, this model
corresponds to the lower
bound for particulate
composites
Estimate of Ec and TS for discontinuous fibers:

-- valid when

-- Elastic modulus in fiber direction:

-- TS in fiber direction:
efficiency factor:
-- aligned 1D: K = 1 (aligned )
-- aligned 1D: K = 0 (aligned )
-- random 2D: K = 3/8 (2D isotropy)
(aligned 1D)
Values from Table 16.3, Callister 7e. (Source for
Table 16.3 is H. Krenchel, Fibre Reinforcement,
Copenhagen: Akademisk Forlag, 1964.)
Composite Strength
c
f
d
t
s
15 length fiber
(TS)
c
= (TS)
m
V
m
+ (TS)
f
V
f

E
c
= E
m
V
m
+ KE
f
V
f

Aligned Continuous fibers
Examples:
From W. Funk and E. Blank, Creep deformation of
Ni3Al-Mo in-situ composites", Metall. Trans. A Vol.
19(4), pp. 987-998, 1988. Used with permission.
-- Metal: g'(Ni
3
Al)-a(Mo)
by eutectic solidification.
matrix: a (Mo) (ductile)
fibers: g (Ni
3
Al) (brittle)
2 mm
-- Ceramic: Glass w/SiC fibers
formed by glass slurry
E
glass
= 76 GPa; E
SiC
= 400 GPa.
(a)
(b)
fracture
surface
From F.L. Matthews and R.L. Rawlings,
Composite Materials; Engineering and
Science, Reprint ed., CRC Press, Boca
Raton, FL, 2000. (a) Fig. 4.22, p. 145 (photo
by J. Davies); (b) Fig. 11.20, p. 349
(micrograph by H.S. Kim, P.S. Rodgers, and
R.D. Rawlings). Used with permission of
CRC
Press, Boca Raton, FL.
Discontinuous, random 2D fibers
Example: Carbon-Carbon
-- process: fiber/pitch, then
burn out at up to 2500C.
-- uses: disk brakes, gas
turbine exhaust flaps, nose
cones.
Other variations:
-- Discontinuous, random 3D
-- Discontinuous, 1D
(b)
fibers lie
in plane
view onto plane
C fibers:
very stiff
very strong
C matrix:
less stiff
less strong
(a)
efficiency factor:
E
c
= E
m
V
m
+ KE
f
V
f

Stacked and bonded fiber-reinforced sheets
-- stacking sequence: e.g., 0/90 or 0/45/90
-- benefit: balanced, in-plane stiffness
Callister 7e.
Composite Survey: Structural
Sandwich panels
-- low density, honeycomb core
-- benefit: light weight, large bending stiffness
honeycomb
adhesive layer
face sheet
from Engineered Materials
Handbook, Vol. 1, Composites, ASM International, Materials Park, OH, 1987.)
Composite Manufacturing Processes
Particulate Methods: Sintering
Fiber reinforced: Several
Structural: Usually Hand lay-up and
atmospheric curing or vacuum
curing
2000 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., Irwin/McGraw-Hill
Open Mold Processes
Only one mold (male or female) is needed and may be made of any material such as wood,
reinforced plastic or , for longer runs, sheet metal or electroformed nickel. The final part is
usually very smooth.

Shaping. Steps that may be taken for high quality
1. Mold release agent (silicone, polyvinyl alcohol, fluorocarbon, or sometimes, plastic
film) is first applied.
2. Unreinforced surface layer (gel coat) may be deposited for best surface quality.
Hand Lay-Up: The resin and fiber (or pieces cut from prepreg)
are placed manually, air is expelled with squeegees and if
necessary, multiple layers are built up.
Hardening is at room temperature but may be improved by heating.
Void volume is typically 1%.
Foam cores may be incorporated (and left in the part) for greater shape
complexity. Thus essentially all shapes can be produced.
Process is slow (deposition rate around 1 kg/h) and labor-intensive
Quality is highly dependent on operator skill.
Extensively used for products such as airframe components, boats, truck bodies,
tanks, swimming pools, and ducts.
A spray gun supplying resin in two converging streams into which roving is
chopped
Automation with robots results in highly reproducible production
Labor costs are lower
SPRAY-UP MOLDING
Cut and lay the ply or prepreg under computer control and without tension; may allow
reentrant shapes to be made.
Cost is about half of hand lay-up
Extensively used for products such as airframe components, boats, truck bodies,
tanks, swimming pools, and ducts.
Tape-Laying Machines
(Automated Lay-Up)
Filament Winding
Ex: pressure tanks
Continuous filaments wound onto mandrel
Adapted from Fig. 16.15, Callister 7e. [Fig. 16.15 is
from N. L. Hancox, (Editor), Fibre Composite Hybrid
Materials, The Macmillan Company, New York,
1981.]

Filament Winding Characteristics
Because of the tension, reentrant shapes cannot be produced.
CNC winding machines with several degrees of freedom (sometimes 7) are
frequently employed.
The filament (or tape, tow, or band) is either precoated with the polymer or is drawn
through a polymer bath so that it picks up polymer on its way to the winder.
Void volume can be higher (3%)
The cost is about half that of tape laying
Productivity is high (50 kg/h).
Applications include: fabrication of composite pipes, tanks, and pressure vessels.
Carbon fiber reinforced rocket motor cases used for Space Shuttle and other
rockets are made this way.
Pultrusion
Fibers are impregnate with a prepolymer, exactly positioned with guides, preheated, and
pulled through a heated, tapering die where curing takes place.
Emerging product is cooled and pulled by oscillating clamps
Small diameter products are wound up
Two dimensional shapes including solid rods, profiles, or hollow tubes, similar to
those produced by extrusion, are made, hence its name pultrusion
Composite Production Methods
Pultrusion
Continuous fibers pulled through resin tank, then preforming die
& oven to cure
Callister 7e.
Production rates around 1 m/min.
Applications are to sporting goods (golf club shafts), vehicle drive shafts (because of the
high damping capacity), nonconductive ladder rails for electrical service, and structural
members for vehicle and aerospace applications.
PREPREG PRODUCTION PROCESSES
Prepreg is the composite industrys term for continuous fiber
reinforcement pre-impregnated with a polymer resin that is only partially
cured.
Prepreg is delivered in tape form to the manufacturer who then molds
and fully cures the product without having to add any resin.
This is the composite form most widely used for structural applications
Manufacturing begins by collimating a series of spool-wound continuous
fiber tows.
Tows are then sandwiched and pressed between sheets of release and
carrier paper using heated rollers (calendering).
The release paper sheet has been coated with a thin film of heated resin
solution to provide for its thorough impregnation of the fibers.
PrePreg Process
The final prepreg product is a thin tape consisting of continuous
and aligned fibers embedded in a partially cured resin
Prepared for packaging by winding onto a cardboard core.
Typical tape thicknesses range between 0.08 and 0.25 mm
Tape widths range between 25 and 1525 mm.
Resin content lies between about 35 and 45 vol%
PrePreg Process
The prepreg is stored at 0C (32 F) or lower because thermoset matrix undergoes
curing reactions at room temperature. Also the time in use at room temperature must be
minimized. Life time is about 6 months if properly handled.
Both thermoplastic and thermosetting resins are utilized: carbon, glass, and aramid
fibers are the common reinforcements.
Actual fabrication begins with the lay-up. Normally a number of plies are laid up to
provide the desired thickness.
The lay-up can be by hand or automated.
PrePreg Process
Composites are classified according to:
-- the matrix material (CMC, MMC, PMC)
-- the reinforcement geometry (particles, fibers, layers).
Composites enhance matrix properties:
-- MMC: enhance s
y
, TS, creep performance
-- CMC: enhance K
c
-- PMC: enhance E, s
y
, TS, creep performance
Particulate-reinforced:
-- Elastic modulus can be estimated.
-- Properties are isotropic.
Fiber-reinforced:
-- Elastic modulus and TS can be estimated along fiber dir.
-- Properties can be isotropic or anisotropic.
Structural:
-- Based on build-up of sandwiches in layered form.
Summary
Microelectromechanical Systems
(MEMS)
An introduction
What are MEMS?
(Micro-electromechanical Systems)
Fabricated using micromachining technology
Used for sensing, actuation or passive micro-structures
Usually integrated with electronic circuitry for control
and/or information processing
3-D Micromachined Structures

Linear Rack Gear Reduction Drive
Triple-Piston Microsteam Engine
Photos from Sandia National Lab. Website: http://mems.sandia.gov
3-D Micromachined Structures
Movies from Sandia National Lab. Website: http://mems.sandia.gov
2 dust mites on an optical
shutter
Deflection of laser light using
a hinged mirror
Applications: Sensors
Pressure sensor:
Piezoresistive sensing
Capacitive sensing
Resonant sensing

Application examples:
Manifold absolute pressure (MAP) sensor
Disposable blood pressure sensor
(Novasensor)

Piezoresistive Pressure Sensors
Pressure
Piezoresistive elements
SiO
2

p
+
Si
<100> Si
substrate
Applications: Sensors
Acceleration
Air bag crash sensing
Seat belt tension
Automobile suspension control
Human activity for pacemaker control

Vibration
Engine management
Security devices
Monitoring of seismic activity

Angle of inclination
Vehicle stability and roll

Inertial sensors
Accelerometers
M
Inertial mass
F=Ma
Spring
F=kx
Damping
F=Dv
Static deformation:
k
Ma
k
F
d
static

Dynamic behavior
Ma F kx
dt
dx
D
dt
x d
M
ext

2
2
M
k
r

D
M
Q
r
Resonance frequency
Quality factor
Capacitive Accelerometers
Stationary Polysilicon fingers
Based on ADXL accelerometers, Analog Devices, Inc.
Spring
Inertial Mass
Anchor to
substrate
Displacement
Applications: Actuators
Texas Instruments Digital Micromirror Device
TM

Array of up to 1.3 million mirrors
Invented by Texas Instruments in 1986
For an animated demo of this device, go to http://www.dlp.com/dlp_technology/
Each mirror is 16 mm on a side with a pitch of 17 mm
Resolutions: 800x600 pixels (SVGA) and 1280x1024 pixels (SXGA)
Some future applications
Biological applications:
Microfluidics
Lab-on-a-Chip
Micropumps
Resonant microbalances
Micro Total Analysis systems

Mobile communications:
Micromechanical resonator for resonant circuits and filters

Optical communications:
Optical switching

Microfluidics / DNA Analysis
In the future, a complete DNA sequencing systems should include:
Amplification (PCR)
Detection (electrophoresis)
Fluid preparation and handling (pumps, valves, filters, mixing and rinsing)
MEMS !

Basic microfabrication technologies
Deposition
Chemical vapor deposition (CVD/PECVD/LPCVD)
Epitaxy
Oxidation
Evaporation
Sputtering
Spin-on methods
Etching
Wet chemical etching
Istropic
Anisotropic
Dry etching
Plasma etch
Reactive Ion etch (RIE, DRIE)
Patterning
Photolithography
X-ray lithography

Summary: MEMS fabrication
MEMS technology is based on silicon
microelectronics technology
Main MEMS techniques
Bulk micromachining
Surface micromachining
LIGA and variations
Wafer bonding
MEMS Resources
Reference Books
Nadim Maluf, An Introduction to Microelectromechanical
Engineering (Artech House, Boston,2000)
M. Elewenspoek and R. Wiegerink, Mechanical Microsensors
(Springer-Verlag, 2001)
Hctor J. De Los Santos, Introduction to
Microelectromechanical (MEM) Microwave Systems (Artech
House, Boston, 1999)

Websites
Sandia National Lab: http://mems.sandia.gov
Berkeley Sensors and Actuators Center: http://www-
bsac.eecs.berkeley.edu
MEMS Clearinghouse: http://www.memsnet.org/

Some companies with MEMS products
Accelerometers Analog Devices:
http://www.analog.com/technology/mems/index.html
Digital Light Processing Projector- Texas Instruments:
http://www.dlp.com
Micro-electrophoresis chip Caliper Technologies:
http://www.calipertech.com
Plastics History
General properties: more durable, harder, tough, light.

Typical uses: automobile parts, construction materials.
Plastic types: Thermosets
Examples:

Unsaturated Polyesters: lacquers, varnishes, boat hulls, furniture

Epoxies and Resins: glues, coating of electrical circuits,
composites: fiberglass in helicopter blades, boats,
Plastic types: Elastomers
General properties: these are thermosets, and have rubber-like properties.

Typical uses: medical masks, gloves, rubber-substitutes
Examples:

Polyurethanes: mattress, cushion, insulation, toys

Silicones: surgical gloves, oxygen masks in medical applications
joint seals
General properties: low melting point, softer, flexible.

Typical uses: bottles, food wrappers, toys,
Examples:

Polyethylene: packaging, electrical insulation, milk and water bottles, packaging film
Polypropylene: carpet fibers, automotive bumpers, microwave containers, prosthetics
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC): electrical cables cover, credit cards, car instrument panels
Polystyrene: disposable spoons, forks, Styrofoam
Acrylics (PMMA: polymethyl methacrylate): paints, fake fur, plexiglass
Polyamide (nylon): textiles and fabrics, gears, bushing and washers, bearings
PET (polyethylene terephthalate): bottles for acidic foods like juices, food trays
PTFE (polytetrafluoroethylene): non-stick coating, Gore-Tex (raincoats), dental floss
Plastic types: Thermoplastics
Plastics Processing: Extrusion
Injection
Parts of the injection screw
Screw
Head and check ring
Plastics Processing: Injection Molding
- Probably the most common, most important, most economical process
Plastics Processing: Blow molding
heated glass
3-piece mold
(a) The hollow piece of heated glass (parison)
is first created by a blow mold
(see text-book Fig 17.25)
(b) The mold is put together
(c) Plunger and hot air push the
glass up
(d) Hot air blows the glass out towards
the mold surface
(e) Mold comes apart, bottle is removed
heated glass
3-piece mold
(a) The hollow piece of heated glass (parison)
is first created by a blow mold
(see text-book Fig 17.25)
(b) The mold is put together
(c) Plunger and hot air push the
glass up
(d) Hot air blows the glass out towards
the mold surface
(e) Mold comes apart, bottle is removed
- similar to glass blow-molding -
Plastics Processing: Thermoforming
Sheet of plastic Heated (soft) Molded using a shaped die
Vacuum thermoforming
Plastics Processing: Compression and Transfer Molding
used mostly for thermosetting polymers
mold is heated and closed using pressure
plastic flows to fills the cavity
flash must be trimmed by finishing
dishes, handles for cooking pots
skis, housing for high-voltage switches
some rubber parts like shoe soles
and even composites such as fiber-reinforced parts
- Probably the most common, most important, most economical process
Cycle of operation for injection molding
Injection Molding: geometry of the mold
Basic components:

mold pieces (define the geometry of the part), AND

sprue, gates, runners, vents, ejection pins, cooling system
Blow Molding

Introduction
Plastic formation process-manufacture of bottles
and hollow-shaped parts
Competitive with other processes, injection molding
Advantages; cycle is very short (low cost), lower
mold cost than injection molding, high production
rates in producing hollow parts with small or large
opening
Blow molding process; general
steps
Melting the resin- done in extruder
Form the molten resin into a cylinder or tube (this
tube is called parison)
The parison is placed inside a mold, and inflated so
that the plastic is pushed outward against the cavity
wall
The part is allowed to cool in the mold and is then
ejected
The part is trimmed

Parison
Blowing step in the blow molding
process

Blow Molding Process
The parison can be formed by
Extrusion process
Injection molding process
Extrusion blow molding
Parison is formed from by forcing the plastic through
an extrusion die.
Material enters the die, flow around the mandrel so
that extrudate would be cylindrical
The die would have a hole at the center so that air
could be blown into the cylinder
In some blow molding operations, the air is introduced
from the bottom through an inlet

Thermoforming Process
Thermoforming
Process used to shape thermoplastic sheet into
discrete parts
Basic principles
Heat a thermoplastic sheet until it softens
Force the hot and pliable material against the
contours of a mold by using either mechanical, air or
vacuum pressure
Held against mold and allow to cool, and plastics
retains its shape
Thermoforming process is differed from other
plastic processing because the material is not
melted, lower pressures are required to
thermoform (the mold materials is less sturdy
materials compared to other processings)
Disadvantage; generates greater amount of
scrap, cost of the sheet materials is raised
(because of separate sheet-forming step),
limited design parts (parts with sharp bends and
corners are difficult to be produced), process
results in internal stresses
Summary of advantages &
disadvantages of thermoforming process
Forming Process
The techniques of forming process can be grouped
into several types;
Fundamental Vacuum forming
Pressure forming
Plug-assist forming
Reverse draw forming
Free forming
Matched-die forming, etc

The term Fundamental is used to emphasize that
this is the simplest method of vacuum forming

Glossary: Sag point- the condition (temperature,
time, thickness, etc) at which a sheet begins to sag
inside the thermoforming oven
Forming Process: Fundamental
Vacuum forming
The material is
clamped into a frame
Material is heated,
begin to sag, the
center of materials
moves downward and
seal against the mold
Vacuum is applied to
the back of the mold
(outside pressure of
the air pushes the
plastic against the
mold)

Forming Process: Fundamental
Vacuum forming
Uneven wall thicknesses are observed in this
technique
As the sheet touch the mold, the thickness at the
location become fixed, further stretching occur in the
area that have not yet touched the mold, typically at
he corner.
Therefore the thinnest area occur at the corner, near
the clamp
Forming Process: Pressure
forming
Positive air
pressure from the
top of the plastic
used to force the
materials against
the mold
Pressure forming
Methods
The materials is clamped and heated
Softening sheet is transferred to the mold area and
the seal is made
Air pressure is introduced and force the plastic
against the mold
The pressure is applied quickly to prevent the sheet
from cooling

Advantages;
Mold cycle can be faster than fundamental vacuum
forming
Sheet can be formed at lower temperature, because
the forcing pressure is high
Greater dimensional control
Pressure forming
Plug-Assist Forming
In this system, a plug is used to force the material
into the mold
Generally the plug will not pushed the material
completely into the mold, then a vacuum is applied
to draw the materials against the cavity walls
Instead a vacuum, air pressure could be used to
force the parts against the walls

new thermoplastic composite material
that can be used to make thermoforming
plug assists, it displays tremendous
dimensional stability and low thermal
conductivity. Designed to replace
Syntactic foam, machined aluminum
and wood for plug assists.
Plug-Assist Forming

Better wall thickness uniformity than obtained from
vacuum and pressure forming
Plugs can be made of metal, wood or thermoset
materials
The plug should be 10% to 20% smaller in length
and width than the female cavity

Plug-Assist Forming
Reverse draw forming
Is used when very deep draws are needed
In this technique, the material is heated to
the sag point, and then blown away from the
mold
The purpose of blowing is to thin the material
in the center of the sheet
The size of the bubble is controlled by an
electric eye. When the buble reachest the
correct size, the pressure is topped and the
plug press the material to the mold
The vacuum is activated through the mold to
draw the plastic against the mold wall

(a) Reverse draw step to
Pre-stretch the material
(b) plug-assist and vacuum
Forming step
Reverse draw forming: Plug
assist air slip forming

Free forming
The forming is done without a mold, especially those
where very high optical quality is required
Touching the mold can result in undesirable
changes in the surface quality of the part
Complexity of shapes of parts is limited
Often used for canopies

The part is expanded
with air pressure
The size of the bubble
is monitored by an
electrical eye
When the bubble
reach the desired
shape, air pressure is
reduced to a level that
maintains the size
while the part cools
Free forming
Some parts with very complicated shapes, can best
be formed if both plug and cavity mold are used
together
These mold must be matched so that it can be fit
together

Matched die forming
Matched die forming
Material is heated to the
sag point, and then
transferred to the molding
station, where the plug and
cavity molds are brought
together to squeeze the
material
No vacuum or air pressure
is applied during the
forming process
Material is mechanically
pressed into the shape
defined by matched molds,
and allow to cool while the
mold continue to press
against it
Thermoforming Machine
Not as complicated or costly as other plastic
processing machine that melt the plastic
materials
Element of the machine; heating chamber or
oven, method for removing the material from
the oven, and locating it so that the sheet
and the mold can be brought into airtight
contact
Machine can be single-mold batch system or
continuous, highly automated machine
Single-station thermoforming
machine
Heating the
sheet
Clamping the
sheet
Moving the sheet
and mold into
proper
relationship for
forming, a
vacuum or
pressure system
Critical operation parameters
The most important sheet property is
thickness (variation in thickness over the
sheet should be kept under 5%)
Uniformity from sheet to sheet is desired, so
that the processing parameter can be kept
constant, i.e. melt index, if one sheet has a
lower melt index than another, the amount of
heat to achieve the same formation will be
higher than in the sheet with lower melt
index
Other variables that might change from
sheet to sheet are density, molecular
orientation, etc

Key parameters during the forming operations;
Speed of vacuum application- vacuum should be
applied as quickly as possible
Temperature of the mold- the mold is normally at
room temperature, or temperature below solidification
point of the plastic
Size of the bubble
Plug size
Critical operation parameters
Male and Female mold
Female mold- a mold in which the part is pressed into a
cavity
Draw ratio
Is used to estimate the amount of wall thickness
variation that might occur
High draw ratio result in excessive thinning and wall
nonuniformities

Draw ratio = depth of part / width of part
Area ratio
Give some approximation of the amount of thinning that
will be experienced by the plastic sheet when it is
transformed

Area ratio = area of the sheet before forming
area of the part after forming
If the sheet is 200 cm2, and will be thermoformed into a
part that has total area of 400cm2, the area ratio is 1:2
Area ratio x desired thickness of finished part = minimum
original thickness (thickness of the blank)
The overall average thickness of the part will therefore
be one-half of original thickness
The area ratio is often used to calculate the size of the
unformed sheet that must be used to make a particular
part
Determine the thickness of the blank for
fundamental vacuum thermoforming, assuming
that the thickness of the finished part is uniform.
The finished dimensions of the part to be made
is 60 x 50 x 5 cm prepared by 2mm thick blank.
Consider the allowance for clamping and mold
clearance = 2 cm on each side
1. Dimension of blank (with allowance)= 64 x 54 cm
2. Calculate surface are of the part
50 x 60 x 1 side = 3000 cm2
50 x 5 x 2 sides = 500 cm2
60 x 5 x 21 sides = 600 cm2
Total area of finished part = 4100 cm2
3. Thermoforming area of the blank= 60 x 50
= 3000 cm2
4. Area ratio = 3000/4100
5. Thickness of the blank
= 2 mm/0.7317 = 2.73 mm

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2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e

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