Chapter 7 Electrical and

Electronic Devices
1. Diode, relay, light
emitting diode (LED)
2. Sensor (thermocouple,
piezo-electric, strain-
gauge)
3. Simple logic circuit
(AND, OR, NOR,
NAND), Truth Table, 7-
segment display.
4. Step-up and step-down
transformer, rectifier
5. Regulated power
supply, inverter.
Outcomes
At the end this topic, students should be
able to:
1. Describe the operation of diode, LED & relay
2. Explain the operations of sensors
3. Explain the operation of transformer (type,
turn ratio, etc.),
4. Describe the regulated power and inverter
5. Simplify the Boolean expression and analyse a
simple logic circuit
Motivation
Most power generating stations that
supply electric energy produce alternating
current can be sent over long distance
efficiently
However, many processes and devices
operate with direct current.
Hence, we need to use rectifier circuits to
convert AC signal to DC signal.
Diode
Diodes are used as rectifiers and also as
voltage limiting for protection purposes.

Diode - Structure
Normally, silicon doped with
Arsenic
(4 out of 5 valence electrons
of arsenic will form electron-
pair bonds with the valence
electrons of Si)
1 unattached valence
electron - free electron
n-type semiconductor
material
Normally, Silicon doped with
boron
(all 3 valence electrons of
boron will form electron-pair
bonds with the valence
electrons of Si)
lack of one electron in the
lattice structure of Si (there
should be 4 electron-pair)
p-type semiconductor
material
At the P-N junction, free electrons diffuse
(spread out) across the junction to
combine with holes that are nearby.
Similarly for holes.
It results the reduction of electrons and
hole in the region, known as depletion
region potential barrier (due to +ve
and ve ions created at this junction)
How a diode works
A diode only allows current pass through it
in one direction only. The polarity of the
voltage (i.e. forward bias and reverse
bias) applied to a diode determines
whether or not the diode will conduct the
electric current.
How a diode works
Forward bias condition
The positive terminal of the
battery repels holes within the
p-type material towards p-n
junction. While the negative
terminal of the battery repels
electrons within the n-type
material towards the p-n
junction. -> electrons combine
with holes.
When a hole combines with
the electron or vice-versa, an
electron-pair bond will
breakdown -> free electrons
move towards the positive
terminal (hence there will be
an electron flow from
negative-to-positive flow).
How a diode works
Reverse bias condition

The holes within the p-type
material are attracted to the
negative terminal of the
battery and away from p-n
junction. The electrons within
the n-type material are
attracted towards the
batterys negative terminal
and away from p-n junction.
This action causes the diode to
present a high resistance to
current -> no current will flow
through it.
Diode Rating (based on peak
inverse voltage, PIV the
highest reverse bias voltage
that could be applied to the
diode, else it may be badly
damaged.)
Application of diode as rectifier

Only one direction of
current flow is allowed
to pass through the
diode.
Typical I-V characteristic
Forward bias
region
Reverse bias
region
For silicon, the knee
voltage is 0.7 V
For germanium, the
knee voltage is 0.3 V
Knee
voltage, v
k
Typical I-V characteristic of diode:
Forward-bias region occurs when v
D

applied to diode is positive and causes
large current flows for small voltages.
In contrast, when diode is reverse-
biased, no current flows as shown in
the I-V characteristic.
However, if large reverse-bias voltage
is applied, diode will operate in
reverse-breakdown region where
large current flows.
Light Emitting Diode (LED)
Commonly found in many electronic devices as an
indicating lamp.
An LED is a p-n junction that emits light when the
junction is forward-biased.
Colour -> depends on the material used
Red: gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP)
Green: gallium phosphide (GaP)
symbol
Relay
A relay is an electrical switch that opens and closes under control
of another electrical circuit. In the original form, the switch is
operated by an electromagnet to open or close one or many sets
of contacts.
These contacts can be either Normally Open or Normally Closed.
Normally-open (NO) contacts connect circuit when the relay is
activated; the circuit is disconnected when the relay is inactive. It
is ideal for applications to switch a high-current power source
from a remote device.
Normally-closed (NC) contacts disconnect circuit when the relay
is activated; the circuit is connected when the relay is inactive. It
is ideal for applications that require the circuit to remain closed
until the relay is activated.
Example of relay structure are clapper type (Figure 1 a), vertical
action type (Figure 1 b), horizontal action type (Figure 1 c) and
bell-crank type (Figure 1 d).

Relay (cont.)
(a)
(b)
(c) (d)
Figure 1
Bell crank type
Vertical action
type
Clapper type
Horizontal action type
Sensor
An electronic device to detect the physical
phenomena (e.g. temperature, pressure,
speed)
Hence, sensors can be classified according
to the type of energy transfer that they
detect, for example
Temperature sensor
Pressure sensor
Motion sensor
Temperature sensor: 1
Thermocouple
It produces an output voltage which
depends on the temperature difference
between two dissimilar metal wires
Hence, it does not measure the absolute
temperature.

Temperature sensor: 2
Infra-red thermometry sensor
Useful in non-contact measurement such as
determining temperature of molten metal.
Operates by receiving light waves emitted from a
source that temperature is being measured.
Pressure sensor: 1
Strain gauge
A device used to measure deformation (strain) of an
object.
As the object is deformed, the foil pattern is
deformed, causing its electrical resistance to change.
This resistance change can be used to calculate the
exact amount of deformation.
Pressure sensor: 2
Piezoelectric sensor
Make use of piezoelectric effects (i.e. voltage is
produce across a crystal element when large pressure
is applied to it.
The diaphragm deflects when pressure is applied and
a rod transfers this movement to piezoelectric crystal.
The pressure on the crystal produces voltage that is
proportional to the pressure.

Transformer
Transformer is an electrical device
constructed of two coils placed in close
proximity to each other so that there is
a mutual inductance.
Use for
high-
frequency
application
Use for
power
application
Transformer (cont.)
Two types of transformers
Step-up: higher output voltage than input voltage
(by having more turns of wire in the secondary
winding)
Step-down: lower output voltage than input voltage
(by having less turns of wire in the secondary
winding)

s
p
s
p
V
V
N
N
=
Transformer (cont.)
The ratio of the voltage is given as






The turns ratio for step up transformer is always
greater than 1 because the secondary winding is
always larger than primary winding.
The equation used in step-up transformer is applied to
step-down transformer but the value of n is less than 1.
P S
P
S
P
S
P
S
nV V
ratio) turns (n n
V
V
N
N
V
V
=
= =
=
Transformer (cont.)
When a load resistor R
L
is connected to the secondary
winding, there is current I
S
flows through R
L
because of
the voltage induced in secondary winding.
The ratio of primary and secondary current can be
expressed in term of turns ratio as follows:






In an ideal transformer, primary power is the same as
secondary power regardless of the turns ratio and given
as
P S
S
P
P
S
S
P
I
n
1
I
ratio) turns (n n
I
I
N
N
I
I
|
.
|

\
|
=
= =
=
S S P P P S
I V I V P P = = =
Transformer (cont.)
Transformers are efficient electrical
devices with typical efficiency of 98%.
% 100 efficiency % =
in
out
P
P
where P
out
is the secondary power (V
S
x I
S
) in Watts
and
P
in
is the primary power (V
P
x I
P
) in Watts.
Rectifier
Rectification is the process of changing AC
to DC.






Electronic power supply
Half-wave rectifier

- If the rectifier circuit is
connected to a sinusoidal
AC input voltage, the
output voltage consists of
only the positive halves of
the AC signal.
- Only half-cycle signal is
allowed to pass through
the diode.
- Not very efficient as the
energy from the other half
cycle is simply wasted.
In the circuit in Fig. A, the diode is
considered as an ideal diode. Therefore,
the diode can be replaced as short-circuit
when it is ON and when the diode is OFF, it
can be replaced as open-circuit.
Fig. A
Full-wave rectifier

Full-cycle of signal is
allowed to pass through
the diodes and arrived
at the load (of the
positive terminal of
v
out
).
Efficient as all the
energy from one
complete cycle is
considered.
Voltage Regulator
Voltage regulation is the process
maintaining a constant DC signal.






Electronic power supply

Voltage Regulator
If the voltage > V
Z
(i.e. above the operating
voltage), the zener diode will be ON. Load
voltage would be maintained because some
amount of current passes through Zener diode.
If the voltage < V
Z
, the zener diode will be OFF.
Inverter
Use to convert DC to AC.
Main component: SCR (Silicon-Controlled
Rectifier)
Example: A single-phase Inverter
Digital
Electronics-
Simple
Logic
Circuit
Logic Gates
Basic building for digital circuit is known as logic
gates. Logic gates operates by combining
several variable inputs to produce an output.
All possible combination inputs and output of a
logic gate is called the truth table.
Timing diagram is a graph that displays the
relationship of two or more waveforms w.r.t.
each other on time basis.
There are five basic logic gates; AND, OR, NOT
(also known as inverter), NAND and NOR gate.

INVERTER Gate
Also known as NOT gate.
It changes one logic level to the opposite level

Boolean expression is

Truth table is



Timing
diagram
is
B A =
AND Gate
AND gate can have two or more inputs but only 1
output.

Boolean expression

Operation: logical multiplication.
Output is HIGH only when all the inputs are HIGH.

Truth table


OR Gate
OR gate can have two or more inputs but only 1 output.

Boolean expression

Operation: logical addition.
Output is LOW only when all the inputs are LOW.

Truth table is


NAND Gate
NAND gate can have two or more inputs but only 1
output.

Boolean expression is

Operation: in combination AND, OR and INVERTER
Output is LOW only when all the inputs are HIGH.

Truth table is



NOR Gate
NOR gate can have two or more inputs but only 1
output.

Boolean expression is

Operation: in combination AND, OR and INVERTER
Output is HIGH only when all the inputs are LOW.

Truth table is


Analysing Combinational Logic
Circuit
In digital system, different gates are connected together
to perform different function combinational logic
circuit

To know what the combinational logic circuit does we
use truth table and analyse the inputs responsible to
give an output 1. However, this process is tedious.

Thus
Obtain the Boolean expression and analyse it to form
the truth table for that particular combinational logic
circuit.
Example 1
Build the truth table for the
combinational logic circuit shown below.
Solution
input output
A B C Y
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 1 0 1
0 1 1 0
1 0 0 1
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 1
1 1 1 0
A + B
C
Y = (A+B) - C
Boolean expression for output Y
Truth-table is
Example 2
Build the truth table for the combinational
logic circuit shown below.

b = A + B
B
a = C - B
Z = (a + b)
= (A + B + C B)
Then fill-in the truth table
Your final Truth Table is
Example 2
Build the truth table for the combinational
logic circuit shown below.
b = A-B
a = (B-C)
c = b+C
Z = a - c
= (B-C) - (A-B + C)
Simplifying the Boolean Expression
Boolean algebra
Mathematical theory of logic variables is called Boolean algebra,
named after mathematician George Boole.
Some useful theorems in Boolean algebra:







Another theorem to Boolean algebra is De Morgans theorem in
simplifying expression involving product and sum of variables.
0
1
0 0
= -
= -
= -
= -
x x
x x x
x x
x
1
1 1
0
= +
= +
= +
= +
x x
x x x
x
x x
( )
( )
( )
y x y x x
x xy x
xz xy z y x
xyz yz x
z y x z y x
+ = +
= +
+ = +
=
+ + = + +
( )
( ) y x y x
y x y x
+ = -
- = +
Simplifying the Boolean Expression
Karnaugh Map
Karnaugh map (K-map) is a technique to simplify a logic
equation.
It looks like a truth table that shows the relationship between
logic input and output as shown below.
The main purpose of using K-map is to make simplification
process of a Boolean equation much easier.

A Combinational Logic Circuit
From Boolean Expression
To draw a logic circuit,
Step 1: Group the variables together in a
bracket
Step 2: Start to draw from either input or
output
Example 1
Draw a combinational logic circuit for Boolean
expression

C C B C B A Z + - + - - =
A-B-C
((B-C)+C)
(B-C)
YOUR FINAL CIRCUIT IS
Example 2
Design a combinational logic circuit that
produces a truth table below.
Input Output
A B C Z
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1
0 1 0 0
0 1 1 0
1 0 0 1
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 0
1 1 1 1
Consider
the
outputs
that
produce
1
C B A - -
C B A - -
C B A - -
Solution
From the truth table:


Since this is already in
the simplest form,
then we could draw
the logic circuit for Z.
C B A C B A ABC Z + + =
0 1
00 0 1
01 0 0
11 0 1
10 1 0
C
AB
From the Boolean expression of output Z


C B A C B A C B A Z - - + - - + - - =
YOUR CIRCUIT IS
Example 3
System A (which has four input, A,B,C and
D and an output, Y ) is used to produce a
high output whenever both inputs A and
C are high or when input B is low.
Solution
From the statement high output is produced
whenever both inputs A and C are high or when
input B is low,


Logic circuit is
B AC Z + =
Note:
For this example, we are able to get the simplest Boolean expression
from the statement itself. Hence, we do not need to draw the truth
table and K-map.
Reference
Peter Buban, Marshall L. Schmitt & Charles G.
Carter, Understanding Electricity and Electronics
Technology (5
th
edition), McGraw-Hill, 1987
Dale R. Patrick & Stephen W. Fardo, Electricity
and Electronics: A Survey (4
th
edition), Prentice-
Hall, 1999
Ronald J. Tocci, Neal S. Widmer & Gregory L.
Moss, Digital Electronics: Principles and
Applications (10
th
edition), Pearson, 2007