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Drying

Introduction and Fundamental


Consepts
Product size: m ten of cm
Product porosity: 0 99%
Drying times: 0.25sec (tissue paper) to 5months (hard
woods)
Production capacities: 0.10kg/h - 100t/h
Product speeds: 0 (stationary) - 2000m/min (tissue
paper)
Drying temperatures: < triple point - > liquid critical
point
Operating pressures: < 1millibar - 25atm
Heat supply: continuously, intermittently;
convection, conduction, thermal and microwave
radiations
Patents granted each year: 250 (US), 80 (European)
Some Statistics and Factoids on Drying
Papermaking - massive dehydration operation - more
energy-intensive than steel making!
Industrially developed nations: 12-25% national
industrial energy consumption - thermal dehydration
Drying in some stages of all industrial opp. - controls
the quality and market value or products marketability
Excluding petrochemical refining, drying is by far the
most energy-intensive
Improper drying of the most expensive drugs may form
polymorphs (no therapeutic value) mil$$$ of losses
Improper design & operation - can be a hazardous
operation - fire/explosion damage (organic products)
Most thermal energy comes from combustion of fossil
fuels, a major environmental impact
Some Statistics and Factoids on Drying
8% of total industrial energy consumption for
drying (Low?)
Approx. 27 million tons water removed / year in
drying processes
An efficient dryer consumes about 1 ton of oil
equivalent (TOE) to remove 8 tons of water
(inefficient ones are as low as 1:3)
Assuming average ratio of 1:6, 4.5 million TOE
of fossil fuel energy is consumed annually in
the U.K. for industrial drying emitting 13
million tons of CO
2
!
Significance of Drying: Figure for the U.K. (1990)
230 x 10
15
J/year used for drying
17.1 million tons / year CO
2
emission
Current efficiency levels 15-35% (EDRL)
5% improvement in energy efficiency
will decrease CO
2
emission by 3 - 4
million tons / year
Improving existing dryers and developing
new drying technologies have potential to
reduce CO
2
emission by 1.2 and 9 million
tons / year
Significance of Drying: Figures for Canada
World production ~ 2 billion tons
35% worlds cereal crops need drying (25% to
15% water, w.b.)
Post-Harvest Drying of Grains (source: FAO, 1996)
Pharmaceutical Industry
Drying / energy costs negligible component of
market price of products
Over $190 billion worth pharmaceutical
products are freeze dried around the world
Complexity of Drying
Liquid
Semi-solid
Solid
Physical &
thermal
properties vary
with moisture,
temperature
Enormous variety
Various modes of heat
input
Various flow
configurations
2-phase flows;
transient, 3-D effects
Dwell times vary
widely
Temperature
Pressure
Steady, unsteady
Affect properties of
product
Affect micro-
structure
Material
Properties
Equipment
Characteristics
Operating
Conditions
Heat and Mass Exchangers Complicating issues
Bottom line: Total cost of drying per kg product !
Complexity of Drying
Variety of energy
sources
(continuous,
intermittent)
Physical /
chemical
transformations
Multi-component
transport
Transient
transport
processes
Varying
moisture
transport
mechanisms
Product quality
interactions
6
Complexity
of Drying
Why is drying of solids so complex?
Over 200 types of dryers in industrial use
Diverse product physical, chemical properties vary widely for feeds
and products
Involves transient momentum, heat and mass transport through
porous media, with phase change, with/without chemical/biochemical
reactions
No universal drying theory exists
Minor changes of MC result in large changes in physical properties
Basics of Drying
Drying
Removal of a liquid from a solid/semi-solid/liquid
to produce solid product by thermal energy input
causing phase change (liquid - vapor; solid -
vapor)
Needed for the purposes of preservation and
storage, reduction in cost of transportation, etc.
Most common and diverse operation with over
100 types of dryers in industrial use
Competes with distillation as the most energy-
intensive operation
Drying
Drying is an operation in which a liquid usually water is
removed from a wet solid in equipment termed dryers.
When a wet solid is subjected to thermal drying,
two processes occur simultaneously:
Transfer of energy (mostly as heat) from the
surrounding environment to evaporate the surface
moisture
Transfer of internal moisture to the surface of the
solid and its subsequent evaporation due to
process 1

Schematic Diagram of Various Heat and Mass Transfer
Modes and Moisture Transport Mechanisms in Drying
Energy input by:
Conduction
Convection
Radiation
MW / RF
Combination of the
above concurrently
or sequentially
Moisture out by:
Internal diffusion
(liquid or vapor)
Capillarity
Surface diffusion
Knudsen diffusion
Combination of
above
Drying Particle
1. INTERNAL CONDITIONS: MOISTURE CONTENT
2. EXTERNAL CONDITIONS: PSYCHROMETRIC
3. MECHANISM OF DRYING
4. CLASSIFICATION AND SELECTION
5. ENERGY COSTS, SAFETY, AND ENVIRONMENTAL
6. DESIGN OF DRYERS
7. DRYER SELECTION
Drying
Drying Rate Heat
and Mass Transfer Rate
External Control Internal Control
Energy Supply
Convection
Conduction
Radiation
Dielectric
Affected by
Pressure
Temperature
Humidity
Gas flow
Dryer Configuration
Gas flow pattern
Residence time
Mass Transfer (Aroma/Shelf life*)
Liquid / vapor diffusion
Equilibrium MC
Energy Transfer
(Chemical/Thermal damage*)
Temperature distributions
Thermal/chemical degradation
Momentum Transfer
(Delamination/Cracking/Puffing*)
Single phase
Two phase
Mechanical Effect (Cracking*)
Deformation
Strength
Stresses
INTERNAL CONDITIONS: MOISTURE CONTENT

1. Nonhygroscopic capillary-porous media.
2. Hygroscopic-porous media.
3. Colloidal (nonporous) media.
MOISTURE CONTENT:

Wet basis


Dry basis


sample of mass
water of mass
= c m . .
solids of mass
water of mass
= c m . .
Water of hydration: integral part of the material
Bound water: water which is in some way bound
to material so that it exerts a vapour pressure less
than that of pure water
Free water: Water which is bound by such minute
forces, that its vapour pressure is equal to the
vapour pressure of pure water
INTERNAL CONDITIONS :
Types of Water in Material
Water Activity versus moisture content for different types of food
INTERNAL CONDITIONS :
Various types of moisture content
INTERNAL CONDITIONS :
INTERNAL CONDITIONS :
(1) asbestos fiber, (2) PVC (508C), (3) wood charcoal, (4) Kraft paper, (5) jute,
(6) wheat, (7) potatoes.
Moisture Isotherms
INTERNAL CONDITIONS :
SorptionDesorption Hysteresis
A typical isotherm
Typical sorption isotherms
INTERNAL CONDITIONS :
INTERNAL CONDITIONS :
Temperature Variations
INTERNAL CONDITIONS :
EXTERNAL CONDITIONS: Gas & Water Vapor

Vapor in Air:
The ClausiusClapeyron Equation
Reference Substance:
EXTERNAL CONDITIONS: Gas & Water Vapor

Specific Humidity:

EXTERNAL CONDITIONS: Gas & Water Vapor

Dry Air & Water Vapor:

Relative Humidity:

EXTERNAL CONDITIONS: Gas & Water Vapor

Dry air & Water Vapor

Mole Fraction:

Y M M
Y
M m M m
M m
n n
n
G w
w w G G
w w
w G
w

Y
Y

622 . 0

Dry Air & Water Vapor:



EXTERNAL CONDITIONS: Gas & Water Vapor

EXTERNAL CONDITIONS: Gas & Water Vapor

Humid Volume:
Dry Air & Water Vapor:

EXTERNAL CONDITIONS: Gas & Water Vapor

Above a humidity of 0.05 kg/kgda:

Enthalpy
EXTERNAL CONDITIONS: Gas & Water Vapor

EnthalpyHumidity Charts
EXTERNAL CONDITIONS: Gas & Water Vapor

Adiabatic Saturation:
Mass Balance:
Energy Balance:
EXTERNAL CONDITIONS: Gas & Water Vapor
Wet Bulb Temperature
EXTERNAL CONDITIONS: Gas & Water Vapor

Wet Bulb Temperature


EXTERNAL CONDITIONS: Gas & Water Vapor

1. Pendahuluan, konsep dasar, ruang lingkup.

2. Mekanisme, klasifikasi & pemilihan
pengering.

3. Fenomena Perpindahan (1).

4. Fenomena Perpindahan (2).

5. Fenomena Perpindahan (3).


6. Teknik Eksperimen dalam Pengering.

7. Perhitungan dalam Pengering.

8. Perancangan Sistem Pengering.

9. Pengering Heat Pump
Ruang Lingkup
10. Pengering Fluidized Bed & Spouted Bed

11. Pengering Drum

12. Pengering Spray

13. Pengering Vacum dan Pengering Freeze

14. Pengering Rotary

15. Pengering Solar dan Pengering Conveyor

16. Optimasi Energi Sistem Pengering

17. Pengering Pasca Panen
Ruang Lingkup

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