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MECHANICAL
PROPERTIES
2
Technological Significance
The materials used in sports
equipment must be
lightweight, stiff, tough, and
impact resistant
Aircraft, such as the one
shown here, makes use of
aluminum alloys and
carbon-fiber-reinforced
composites.
3
Various types of strain response to an imposed stress
4
Various types of strain response to an imposed stress
5
Stress-Strain Test
specimen
machine
6
Tensile Test
Terminology
Load - The force applied to a material during
testing.
Strain gage or Extensometer - A device used for
measuring change in length (strain).
Engineering stress - The applied load, or force,
divided by the original cross-sectional area of the
material.
Engineering strain - The amount that a material
deforms per unit length in a tensile test.
8
F
bonds
stretch
return to
initial
1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload
Elastic means reversible.
Elastic Deformation
9
1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload
Plastic means permanent.
Plastic Deformation (Metals)
10
Plastic Deformation (permanent)
From an atomic perspective, plastic
deformation corresponds to the breaking of
bonds with original atom neighbors and
then reforming bonds with new neighbors.
After removal of the stress, the large
number of atoms that have relocated, do
not return to original position.
Yield strength is a measure of resistance
to plastic deformation.
Stress-Strain Diagram
Strain ( ) (DL/Lo)
4
1
2
3
5
Elastic
Region
Plastic
Region
Strain Hardening
Fracture
ultimate
tensile
strength
Elastic region
slope =Youngs (elastic) modulus
yield strength
Plastic region
ultimate tensile strength
strain hardening
fracture
necking
yield
strength
UTS
1 2
y
E
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Localized deformation of a ductile material during a
tensile test produces a necked region.
The image shows necked region in a fractured sample
14
Permanent Deformation
Permanent deformation for metals is
accomplished by means of a process called
slip, which involves the motion of
dislocations.
Most structures are designed to ensure that
only elastic deformation results when stress
is applied.
A structure that has plastically deformed, or
experienced a permanent change in shape,
may not be capable of functioning as
intended.
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Important Mechanical Properties
from a Tensile Test
Young's Modulus: This is the slope of the linear
portion of the stress-strain curve, it is usually
specific to each material; a constant, known value.
Yield Strength: This is the value of stress at the
yield point, calculated by plotting young's modulus
at a specified percent of offset (usually offset =
0.2%).
Ultimate Tensile Strength: This is the highest
value of stress on the stress-strain curve.
Percent Elongation: This is the change in gauge
length divided by the original gauge length.
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tensile stress,
engineering strain,
p
= 0.002
Yield Strength,
y
17
Many literatures suggest such a curve as shown here
to explain what is the strain hardening zone.:
Stress-Strain Diagram (cont)
Elastic Region (Point 1 2)
- The material will return to its original shape
after the material is unloaded( like a rubber band).
- The stress is linearly proportional to the strain in
this region.
E
: Stress(psi)
E : Elastic modulus (Youngs Modulus) (psi)
: Strain (in/in)
E or
Strain Hardening
- If the material is loaded again from Point 4, the
curve will follow back to Point 3 with the same
Elastic Modulus (slope).
- The material now has a higher yield strength of
Point 4.
- Raising the yield strength by permanently straining
the material is called Strain Hardening.
Stress-Strain Diagram (cont)
Tensile Strength (Point 3)
- The largest value of stress on the diagram is called
Tensile Strength(TS) or Ultimate Tensile Strength
(UTS)
- It is the maximum stress which the material can
support without breaking.
Fracture (Point 5)
- If the material is stretched beyond Point 3, the stress
decreases as necking and non-uniform deformation
occur.
- Fracture will finally occur at Point 5.
Stress-Strain Diagram (cont)
(c)2003 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. Thomson Learning
100 % x
l
l l
EL
o
o f
L
3
4bd
3
L
3
12 R
4
rect.
cross
section
circ.
cross
section
MEASURING ELASTIC MODULUS
24
3-point bend test to measure room T strength.
F
L/2 L/2
cross section
R
b
d
rect. circ.
location of max tension
Flexural strength:
rect.
fs
m
fail
1. 5F
max
L
bd
2
F
max
L
R
3
Typ. values:
Material
fs
(MPa) E(GPa)
Si nitride
Si carbide
Al oxide
glass (soda)
700-1000
550-860
275-550
69
300
430
390
69
Data from Table 12.5, Callister 6e.
MEASURING STRENGTH
60
--brittle response (aligned chain, cross linked & networked case)
--plastic response (semi-crystalline case)
Stress-Strain Behavior: Elastomers
3 different responses:
A brittle failure
B plastic failure
C - highly elastic (elastomer)
Hardness of Materials
Hardness test - Measures the resistance of a material to
penetration by a sharp object.
Macrohardness - Overall bulk hardness of materials
measured using loads >2 N.
Microhardness Hardness of materials typically measured
using loads less than 2 N using such test as Knoop
(HK).
Nano-hardness - Hardness of materials measured at 1
10 nm length scale using extremely small (~100 N)
forces.
62
Hardness
Hardness is a measure of a materials resistance
to localized plastic deformation (a small dent or
scratch).
Quantitative hardness techniques have been
developed where a small indenter is forced into
the surface of a material.
The depth or size of the indentation is measured,
and corresponds to a hardness number.
The softer the material, the larger and deeper the
indentation (and lower hardness number).
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Resistance to permanently indenting the surface.
Large hardness means:
--resistance to plastic deformation or cracking in
compression.
--better wear properties.
Adapted from Fig. 6.18, Callister 6e. (Fig. 6.18 is adapted from G.F. Kinney, Engineering Properties and Applications of Plastics, p. 202, John Wiley and Sons, 1957.)
Hardness
64
Hardness Testers
65
66
Conversion of
Hardness
Scales
Also see: ASTM E140 - 07
Volume 03.01
Standard Hardness Conversion
Tables for Metals Relationship
Among Brinell Hardness, Vickers
Hardness, Rockwell Hardness,
Superficial Hardness, Knoop
Hardness, and Scleroscope
Hardness
67
Correlation
between
Hardness and
Tensile
Strength
Both hardness and tensile
strength are indicators of
a metals resistance to
plastic deformation.
For cast iron, steel and
brass, the two are roughly
proportional.
Tensile strength (psi) =
500*BHR
69
Stress and strain: These are size-independent
measures of load and displacement, respectively.
Elastic behavior: This reversible behavior often
shows a linear relation between stress and strain.
To minimize deformation, select a material with a
large elastic modulus (E or G).
Plastic behavior: This permanent deformation
behavior occurs when the tensile (or compressive)
uniaxial stress reaches y.
Toughness: The energy needed to break a unit
volume of material.
Ductility: The plastic strain at failure.
Summary