Introduction

As organisms evolved from their ancestors, systems

involved in movement and support evolved
simultaneously with the increase in body size.

4 cell types that contribute to movement:
(1) amoeboid cells,
(2) flagellated cells
(3) ciliated cells
(4) muscle cells
Functions
provide rigidity to the body
surfaces for muscle attachment
protection for vulnerable body organs
3 kinds of skeleton for support:
(1) fluid hydrostatic skeletons
(2) rigid exoskeletons
(3) rigid endoskeletons
The Invertebrates Skeletal System
1. Hydrostatic (Gr. hydro, water statikos, to stand)
skeleton- a core of liquid (water or a body fluid such
as blood) surrounded by a tension-resistant sheath of
longitudinal and or circular muscles.
DIRECTION OF MOVEMENT
Rigid skeletons consist of rigid elements to which
muscles can attach. Since muscles can only contract
and not actively lengthen, rigid skeletons provide the
anchor points required by opposing sets of muscles,
such as flexors and extensors, that allow movement in
more than one direction
2 TYPES:
1. Exoskeleton
2. Endoskeleton
2. Rigid Exoskeletons (Gr. exo, outside, skeleton)
Primarily: for locomotor functions because they
provide sites for muscle attachment and counterforce
for muscle movements.
Secondary functions: support and protect the body
Example:
The epidermis of arthropods secretes a thick, hard
cuticle that waterproofs the body . It also protects and
supports soft internal organs. Lastly, the exoskeleton
also prevents internal tissues from drying out.

Exoskeletons, however, limit an animals growth. Some
animals shed the exoskeleton periodically, as
arthropods do when they molt.
However, certain regions
of the arthropod body
have thin, flexible cuticle,
and joints. It is in these
areas that pairs of
antagonistic muscles
function through a system
of levers to produce
coordinated movement.

3. Endoskeletons of Invertebrates (Gr. endo,
within skeleton).
Example: 1. sponges - consist of mineral spicules and
fibers of spongin that keep the body from collapsing
2. echinoderms - consist of small, calcareous
plates called ossicles.

The most familiar endoskeletons, however, are in
vertebrates.
The Vertebrates Skeletal System
vertebrate skeletal system = endoskeleton + body tissues.

This endoskeleton consists of two main types of supportive
tissue: cartilage and bone


Cartilage
a specialized type of connective tissue that provides a
site for muscle attachment, aids in movement at joints,
and provides support

resists compression

consists of cells (chondrocytes) in lacunae, fibers, and
a cellular matrix




The basic form - hyaline cartilage which has a clear,
glassy appearance
Blood vessels are virtually absentthe reason that
sports injuries involving cartilage heal slowly.

Two other types of cartilage : elastic and fibrous
Bone
a specialized connective tissue that provides a point of
attachment for muscles
transmits the force of muscular contraction from one
part of the body to another during movement
support the internal organs of many animals
store reserve calcium and phosphate
manufacture red blood cells and some white blood
cells
Bones are rigid than cartilage because of calcium
phosphate and calcium carbonate

Bone cells (osteocytes) are in minute chambers called
lacunae, which are arranged in concentric rings
around osteonic canals .These cells communicate with
nearby cells by means of cellular processes passing
through small channels called canaliculi.
Bone Development
Bone is never formed in vacant space but is always a
replacement in areas occupied by connective tissue.
Bone development from cartilage - endochondral
(within-cartilage) or replacement bone
intramembranous bone - which develops directly
from sheets of embryonic cells
Bone accdg to density
Spongy (or cancellous) bone - consists of an open,
interlacing framework of bony tissue
Compact bone - dense, appearing solid to the
unaided eye. Forms after further deposition of bone
matrix
Skeleton of the Fishes
have an axial skeleton (so named because it forms the
longitudinal axis of the body) that includes a
notochord, ribs, and cartilaginous or bony vertebrae

muscles used in locomotion attach to the axial
skeleton.
Skeleton of the Tetrapods
During the evolution of the aquatic animals to
becoming terrestrial animals, the tetrapod
endoskeleton became modified for support on land

This is a result of the specializations of the
intervertebral disks that articulate with adjoining
vertebrae. The intervertebral disks help hold the
vertebral column together, and they also absorb shock
and provide joint mobility.
Bone replaced cartilage in the ribs

Connective tissues connected to the axial skeleton help
keep elevated portions from sagging

Appendages became elongated for support on a hard
surface, and changes in the shoulder enabled the neck
to move more freely
Human Endoskeleton
Two major parts:

1. axial skeleton - the skull, vertebral column,
sternum, and ribs

2. appendicular skeleton - the appendages, the
pectoral girdle, and the pelvic girdles. These girdles
attach the upper and lower appendages to the axial
skeleton