Introduction to

Photogrammetry
What is Photogrammetry?
The science, art and technology of
obtaining reliable measurements, maps,
DEMs and other derived products from
photographs
emphasis on quantitative measurements
length
area
height
volume
Background of
Photogrammetry
1856 - Toumachon ascends in a balloon (near
Paris) and takes the first aerial photo

Aerial photos are interpreted for mapping
purposes
has become a profession
some features are clearly visible, while others are
more difficult to recognize
Background of
Photogrammetry
Interpretation is based on extracting
information from shape, size, patterns,
shadow, grey tones, colour, texture and
through context and comparison with
contiguous areas
black and white (panchromatic)
colour (Infrared)
Advantages of Aerial
Photographs
Synoptic views of large areas
stop action capabilities
permanent storage
allows spatial relationships to be
determined which are not possible from
the ground
cost effective

Elements to Consider - 1st
Order
Basics
Tone/Colour - distinguishable variations
in shades of black to white or colour
can distinguish many more colours than
shades of grey
Resolution - ability of the entire system
to create a sharply defined image
may be discussed in terms of camera lens,
ground resolution
Elements to Consider - 2nd
Order
Geometric Arrangement
Size - can be used for judging the
significance of objects and features
both relative and absolute sizes important

Shape - aids in identification
man made - tend to have straight edges
natural - tend to have irregular shapes
Elements to Consider - 2nd
Order
Spatial Arrangement
Texture - frequency of change and
arrangement of tones
visual inspection of smoothness or
roughness
e.g. Water typically smooth, grass is
medium texture, and forest is rough
there are always exceptions

Pattern - spatial arrangement of objects
grid network of street, drainage patterns
Elements to Consider - 3rd
Order
Locational or Postional
Site - how objects are arranged with
respect to one another or to terrain
features
aspect, topography, geology, soil,
vegetation and cultural features
Association - some objects are
commonly identified with other features
and tend to confirm the existence of
another
helpful for manmade installations
Elements to Consider - 3rd
Order
Interpreted
Height - provides detail about many features
and is useful for analytical studies
height of trees
depth of an excavation
Shadow - may enhance or inhibit
interpretation
tree identification can be enhanced by the
shadows that are recorded
geologist prefer a low sun angle
Aids and Techniques for
Viewing
collateral material
image analysis keys
field verification
handling of imagery
stereoscopic viewing
use of multiple images
convergence of evidence
How Aerial Photos are
Collected
A study area is identified and the airplane
is sent to record a series of successive
photos
flight lines - are the straight lines of
planned flight
nadir line - actual path of the plane traced
on the ground
end lap - over lap between successive
photos along the flight line
ensures complete coverage
Flight Lines
Geometrical Properties of
Aerial Photos
Vertical photos
looking straight down at the surface
90 ( +/- 3 degrees)

Oblique photos
low angle oblique - >+/- 3 degrees, but no
horizon
high angle oblique - horizon is visible
Example of Vertical Air Photo
Low and High Oblique
High Oblique Aerial Photo
Petaluma River, San Francisco
Example of Low Oblique Air
Photo
Advantages of Vertical Over
Oblique Aerial Photographs
Uniform scale
directions (bearing or azimuth) can be
performed in the same manner as a map
easier to interpret
tall buildings less likely to mask other objects
minimum of mathematical correction req.
stereoscopic study is more effective
Advantages of Oblique Over
Vertical Aerial Photographs
Covers more ground at the same altitude and
focal length
may be more effective if clouds are present
have a more natural view because silhouettes
are visible
objects not visible on vertical may be visible
feature elevations are more accurate
may use inexpensive cameras
Photographic Coordinate
System
x-y axis defined by connecting lines of
opposite fiducial marks
the point where the x and y axes cross is
the origin
x-axis assigned to fiducial axis most
coincident with the line of flight
progresses in a positive fashion from the
origin in the direction of flight
negative in opposite direction
Photographic Coordinate
System
y-axis is perpendicular to the x-axis
intersection of axes is photo-coordinate
origin
origin coincides with the principle point
(ideally)
Photo Centres
Most aerial photos are not perfectly vertical
three photo centres
principle point
nadir
isocentre
each is important in terms of different types of
geometric distortions
if perfectly vertical, all three centres would
coincide at one point (principle point)
Photo Centres
Principle Point
Geometric centre of the the photo
occurs at the intersection between the
projection of the optical axis and the
ground
defined by the intersection of lines
drawn between opposite fiducial marks
defines the origin of the x and y axes in
the photo coordinate system
Nadir
also known as the vertical or plumb point
intersection between the plumb line directly
beneath the camera centre and the ground at
the time of exposure
unlike the principle point, there are no marks
on the photo to locate the nadir
locating nadir requires stereoscopic plotting
techniques and expensive instruments and
ground control information
Nadir
Relief displacement is radial from nadir so tall
buildings can be used as an indicator of nadir
by projecting lines along the displacement
edges of those features
if photo not perfectly vertical, the nadir and
principle point have different positions
nadir is always on the down side of the tilted
photograph
Isocentre
The point halfway between the principle
point and the nadir on a line joining
those two points
is the focus of tilt displacement
on a truly vertical photo, there would be
no tilt displacement only relief
displacement and radial displacement
Radial Displacement
On vertical photos, is the apparent leaning
out or displacement of the top of any object
having height in relation to its base
direction of displacement is radial from the
principle point on a true vertical photo or
from the isocentre on a vertical photograph
distorted by tilt of the platform
Relief Displacement
Displacement due to variation in terrain
elevation
an increase in elevation causes features in the
photo to be displaced radially outward from the
principle point and nadir
increases as distance from pp increases
increases as elevation increases
decreases with increases of flying height
no relief displacement at principle point
Relief Displacement
Tilt Displacement
Displacement due to tilt of the platform
relative to the ground
degree of displacement increases away
from the isocentre
Tilt Displacement
Scale
States that one unit of distance on the
photo represents a specific number of
units on the ground
unit equivalent scale
e.g. 1mm on photo represents 25m on
ground
representative fraction
e.g. 1:50 000 (unitless)
Scale
Large vs small scale:
Large scale = small area with lots of detail
Small scale = larger area with less detail
Method for determining scale
measure distance on photo and compare
to actual ground distance
must convert to same units
photo distance/ground distance
Example of Large Scale
This is a 1:5000 air photo
Example of Small Scale Photo
This is a 1:50000
air photo
Scale Variation
Within the same photo, there is
geometric distortion
all points on a map are depicted in their
true planimetric relationships
all points on a photo are not depicted in
their true planimetric relationship
photo results from projecting converging
rays through a common point in a camera
lens
Important Photographic
Variables
Calculating Scale
S = d/D
where
S = photo scale
d = photo distance
D = ground distance

Example Calculation
If you are given an aerial photograph
with a scale of 1:5000 and a building is
measured with a width of 15.3 mm,
what would the width of the building be
if measured on the ground?
S = d/D
Answer: 76.5 m
Calculating Scale
For a vertical photo taken over flat
terrain scale is a function of:
focal length
height of focal plane above ground

Calculating Scale
S = f/H
where
S = photo scale (RF)
f = camera focal length
H = flying height above terrain
H = H - h
h = terrain elevation

Example Calculation
If the scale of a photo is 1:15000 and a
vertical photograph is taken from a
flying height of 2780m above mean sea
level, what is the focal length of the
camera, if the terrain is flat and located
at an elevation of 500m?
S = f/H
Answer: 152 mm
Ground Coverage
Function of:
camera format size
focal length
flying height above terrain
format size is the actual size of the image
recorded on film
larger format = larger ground coverage
shorter focal length = larger ground cov.
Lower flying height = less ground coverage