Evolucion de Las Telecomunicaciones

Copyright 2011 LOGTEL
Basic Telecom
Its all about signaling
Samuel Dratwa
Samuel.dratwa@gmail.com
2
What are we selling ?
Its all about
customer satisfaction
customer satisfaction !
3
Course Content
1. Introduction
What is telecom ?
2. Telephony history form Bell to analog switch
3. Telecom Network
Switching
telecom services
4. Moving to Digital
5. Basic Signaling (SS7)
6. ISP / Data network
7. Mobile

Goals
4
To understand the terminology
To know where did we come from
To understand the need and the various signaling
What is Telecom ?
5
Telecommunication is the transmission of information over
significant distances to communicate.
Signaling:

the information exchange concerning the establishment and control of
a telecommunication circuit and the management of the network, in contrast
to user information transfer
6
Switching Systems
Manual controlSwitch/cord boards
Patch Cord
Pairs
Off-Hook Indicator
Manual Ring
Tip
Ring
The Telephone: Tip and Ring
Strowger switch (Step by Step) - 1891

9
10
11
Signaling E&M (Ear and Mouth) inbound
12
On-hook
Off-hook
Line tone
Dialing
Ringing
Ring back tone
Busy tone

Exchange A Exchange B Alice Bob
ringing
tone
Bob
answers
off-hook
connection ok
dial tone
Bob number
ringing tone
Setup of a PSTN call
(meet Alice and Bob)

Crossbar 1920s to 80s

14
Now we can invent DTMF
and now we can have logic
(!)
Tone Dialing
1 2 3 A
4 5 6 B
7 8 9 C
* 0 # D
Dual Tone Multifrequency (DTMF)
1209 1336 1477 1633
697
770
852
941
Timing:
60 ms Break
40 ms Make
16
N11 code

17
2-1-1: community services, United Way
3-1-1: municipal government services, non-emergency
4-1-1: directory assistance
5-1-1: traffic information or police non-emergency
services
6-1-1: telephone company customer service and repair
7-1-1: TDD relay for the deaf
8-1-1: underground public utility location,[1] in Canada 8-
1-1 is assigned for non-emergency health information
and services
9-1-1: emergency services

Telecom Network Elements
18
Core network
SDH Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (Europe)
SONET Synchronous optical networking (USA)
Switches
Class 4 network services
Class 5 Line services
Signaling
IN Intelligent Network
SS7 (Common Channel) Signaling System #7
SIP Session Initiation Protocol
Access / Last mile
Twisted per
FTTx fiber to the X
Wireless

Telecom Management OSS/BSS
19
Network facing operational
support systems
Run by Network Operations
Typically including service
activation, provisioning, fault
management, etc
Cost-focused

Customer facing business
support systems
Run by the IT department
Typically including billing and
CRM
Revenue-focused

OSS
BSS
Traditional definitions
eTOM NGOSS - FrameWorX
20
Classes 1-5
21
CLASS (Custom Local Area Signaling Services)
22
AKA VSC (vertical service code) - developed by AT&T
in the 1960s
a special code dialed prior to (or instead of) a telephone
number that engages some type of special telephone
service
Anonymous Call Rejection: start
Anonymous Call Rejection: cancel
Busy Number Redial : start
Busy Number Redial : cancel
Call Forwarding: start
Call Forwarding: cancel
Call Return (incoming)
Call Waiting disable
Caller ID Disable
MDF - Main Distribution Frame
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MOVING TO DIGITAL
24
Trunks to SDH
25
A trunk line is a circuit connecting telephone
switchboards
(local loop circuit which extends from telephone exchange switching
equipment to individual telephones)
DS0 (Digital Signal 0) / T0 / E0 64Kb/s
DS1 / T1 1.5Mb/s E1 2Mb/s

DS3 / T3 -

Nyquist rate
26
Why 3.4 KHz ?
Signal
Energy Distribution for
Human Speech
0 Hz 300 Hz
3,400 Hz
20 kHz
Bandwidth
(3.1 kHz)
Bandpass Filtering
The human ear can hear sounds up to 20 kHz,
but most sound is between 300 Hz and 3.4 kHz.
The bandpass filter only passes this sound to reduce bandwidth.
Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)
27
Used Used Used Used Used
Frame 1 Frame 2 Frame 3
Slot 1
for
Circuit A
Slot 3
for
Circuit C
Slot 2
for
Circuit B
TDM reserves capacity
for each circuit in each frame;
assures speed but is wasteful
Time
Slot 1
for
Circuit A
Slot 1
for
Circuit A
SONET and SDH
Synchronous Optical Network (SONET)
High-speed, fiber optic networks organized in rings
Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH)
Fiber ring networks used internationally
Essentially the same as SONET
SONET and SDH (cont'd)
The basic measure of SONET speed is the Synchronous Transport Signal
level 1 (STS-1) frame, which travels at
51.84 Mbps
The basic unit for SDH is the Synchronous Transport Module
(STM)-1 frame, which travels at 155.52 Mbps
Benefits of using SONET/SDH
You can use multiplexors and routers to combine different
data lines and streams onto one line
One heterogeneous network can communicate with another
distant heterogeneous network via one fiber optic ring
32
SDH Rings
34 Mb/s
2 Mb/s
Rick Graziani
graziani@cabrillo.edu
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Introducing ISDN
Telephone companies developed ISDN (Integrated Services
Digital Network) as part of an effort to standardize subscriber
services.
This included the User-Network Interface (UNI), better known as
the local loop.
The ISDN standards define the hardware and call setup schemes for
end-to-end digital connectivity.
These standards help achieve the goal of worldwide connectivity by
ensuring that ISDN networks easily communicate with one another.
In an ISDN network, the digitizing function is done at the user site
rather than the telephone company.
Rick Graziani
graziani@cabrillo.edu
34
ISDN Advantages
ISDN also provides more bandwidth than a traditional 56 kbps dialup
connection.
ISDN uses bearer channels, also called B channels, as clear data
paths.
Each B channel provides 64 kbps of bandwidth.
An ISDN connection with two B channels would provide a total usable
bandwidth of 128 kbps.
Each ISDN B channel can make a separate serial connection to any
other site in the ISDN network.
ISDN lines can be used in conjunction with PPP encapsulation.
Signaling Categories
Signaling categories:
Supervision detects changes to a particular line
Addressing responsible for routing signals to the correct switch
Alerting audible alert signals
Call progress signals that maintain calls
Audible call progress tones:
Dial tone
Busy signal
Receiver off hook too long
Nonexistent number
In-Band and
Out-of-Band Signaling
In-band signaling
The process of allowing the control signal to share the same path
as the voice and data
AKA CAS (Channel Associated Signaling)
Out-of-band signaling
The process of using a separate channel for signaling purposes
AKA CCS (Common Channel Signaling)
Advantage of CCS over CAS
Faster call setup
No interference between signaling tones by network and
frequency of human speech pattern.
Greater Trunking Efficiency: CCS has shorter call set up
and tear down times that result in less call holding time,
thereby reducing the traffic on the network.
Information Transfer: CCS allows the transfer of
additional information along with the signaling traffic
providing facilities such as caller identification and voice
or data identification
SS7 Signaling System #7 (80s)
SS7 network major components include:
SSP (Service Switching Point)
STP (Signaling Transfer Point)
SCP (Service Control Point)
SL (signaling link)

SSP (Service Switching Point)
SSP is the local exchange to the subscriber and the
interface to the telephone network.

The SS7 signaling information is produced at the sending
SSP and is handled at the receiving SSP.

It converts voice (in band) signaling into the SS7 signal
units (out band), and vice versa.

STP (Signaling Transfer Point)
STP is the network node.
It works like a router to perform the routing of messages
to other signaling points.
It is usually paired to provide redundancy for a reliable
message transfer.
It is adjunct to a voice switch, and might stand alone as a
separate machine.
(Its the tandem in class 4/4)
SCP (Service Control Point)

SCP works as the interface with the databases, which
contain the information of the subscribers, such as 800
service, calling cards, fraud data, etc.

When receiving a request, it is triggered to handle the
database queries, and returns a response with the results
of the queries to the originating SSP.
Slide 42 IP Formats in INs
SSP Service Switching Point
SS7
STP
STP
SMS
SCP
IP
SSP
SSP
SMS Service Management System
SCP Service Control Point
STP Service Transfer Point
IP Intelligent Peripheral
Basic Architecture of a IN

Basic Call Setup Example
Initial address message (IAM): contains all necessary information for a
switch to establish a connection
Address complete message (ACM): acknowledge to IAM; the required circuit
is reserved and the phone is ringing (ring back tone)
Answer message (ANM): occurs when the called party picks up the phone
Release (REL): sent by the switch sensing that the phone hung up
Release complete (RLC): each exchange that receives REL, sends an RLC
message back (this acknowledges receipt of REL)

6,10
9
2
5
1
3
1
Exchange A Exchange B Transit exchange Alice Bob
Setup
IAM
IAM
Setup
Alert
Connect
ACM
ANM
ACM
ANM
Alert
Connect
Charging of call starts now
Link-by-link routing (number analysis) Q.931
Link-by-link signalling (no
number analysis)
Setup of a call using ISUP

IAM Initial Address Message

ACM Address Complete Message

ANM Answer Message

REL Release Message

RLC Release Complete
user A user B
Some basic ISUP messages

Intelligence Network (90s)
Before IN?
All services were to be implemented directly in the core switch
systems.
Contact Vendors: Headache for service providers.
What actually is IN?
An architecture that redistributes a portion of the call
processing, that is traditionally performed by tel-switches, to
other nodes.
Two types of IN today:
Intelligence Network (IN) standardized by ITU.
Advanced Intelligent Network (AIN) - standardized by Bellcore.
Why Intelligent Networking?
Introduce new services rapidly: IN provides the capability to provision new
services or modify existing services throughout the network with physical intervention.
Provide Service Customization: Service providers require the ability to change
the service logic rapidly and efficiently. Customers are also demanding control of their
own services to meet their individual needs.
Establish Vendor Independence: To develop the software for service
providers quickly and efficiently, suppliers have to integrate commercially available
software to create the applications required by service providers.
Create open interfaces: Open interfaces allow service providers to introduce
network elements quickly for individualized customer services.
Capable to act appropriately in a changing environment

IN service family
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1. Number translating
2. Billing modification
Reverse charging (800)
Split charging (700)
Premium rate (900)
Personal services (600)
3. Centralize Voice Mail
4. Pre Paid (node)

5. SMS Short Massaging

in mobile networks IN CAMEL
(Customised Applications for
Mobile networks Enhanced
Logic)

Centrex
49
Centrex is a PBX-like service providing switching at the
central office instead of at the customer's premises.
Typically, the telephone company owns and manages all
the communications equipment and software necessary
to implement the Centrex service and then sells various
services to the customer.
Today we use the terms:
Hosted
Stickiness
Virtual
Cloud
PABX (voice) Services (1)
Private (automatic) Branch eXchange
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Auto attendant
Automatic call distributor
Automated directory services (where callers can be routed to a given employee by
keying or speaking the letters of the employee's name)
Call accounting
Call blocking
Call forwarding on busy or absence
Call park
Call pick-up
Call transfer
Conference call
Custom greetings
Busy Override
PABX service (2)
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Direct Inward Dialing (DID) AKA DDI and DDO
Direct Inward System Access (DISA) (the ability to access internal features from an
outside telephone line)
Do not disturb (DND)
Follow-me, also known as find-me: Determines the routing of incoming calls. The
exchange is configured with a list of numbers for a person. When a call is received for
that person, the exchange routes it to each number on the list in turn until either the
call is answered or the list is exhausted (at which point the call may be routed to
a voice mail system).
Interactive voice response
Music on hold
Night service

Signaling in VoIP networks
VoIP Network can carry SS7 over IP using protocols defined
by Signaling Transport (SIGTRAN).

DATA NETWORKING
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OSI 7 Layer Model
OSI - Open Systems
Interconnection (Basic
Reference Model)
Each level is an independent
set of protocols
Each level can be change
seamlessly
Application
Presentation
Session
Transport
Network
Data Link
Physical
5 Layer model
Application
Transport
Network
Data Link
Physical
Application
Presentation
Session
Transport
Network
Data Link
Physical
5 Layer model (TCP/IP)
Application Represent the
end user and the application he
use (mail, browse, FTP, etc.)
Transport - end-to-end
message transfer, along with
error control, fragmentation
and flow control.
Network (AKA Internet)
responsible on getting packets
of data from source to
destination.
Link - processes of
transmitting receiving packets
on a given link layer
Application
Transport - TCP
Network - IP
Link
TCP/IP Connection
TCP - Transmission Control Protocol
Connection oriented - Reliable stream transport
Conceptually, two ends communicate to agree on
details
After agreeing application notified of connection
During transfer, ends communicate continuously to
verify data received correctly
When done, ends tear down the connection
Provides buffering and flow control
Takes care of lost packets, out of order,
duplicates, long delays
Usually used for browsing, FTP, Mail, etc.

read(s1, dataBlock)
Transport (TCP)
Network (IP)
Link (WLAN)
Web server
Samuel
Web Site
send(s2, dataBlock)
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5
Network (IP)
Link
1 2 3
1 2 3
Transport (TCP)
Browser
1 2 3 4 5
Network (IP)
Link (WLAN)
Physical
Router
1 2 3
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5
Physical Physical
UDP- User Datagram Protocol
Connectionless Datagram- Not Reliable transport
Minimal overhead, high performance
No setup/teardown, 1 datagram at a time
Application responsible for reliability
Includes datagram loss, duplication, delay, out-of-sequence,
multiplexing, loss of connectivity

Usually used for Voice & Video streaming,
broadcasting, etc.

TCP vs. UDP data format

Source port

Destination port
Sequence number
0
8
16
31
24
Acknowledgement number
4
Hlen Resv Code Window
Urgent ptr Checksum
Options (if any) Padding
Data if any

Source port

Destination port
UDP message len Checksum (opt.)
0
8 16 31 24
Data

TCP data format
Port - TCP port numbers to ID applications at both ends
of connection
Sequence number - ID position in senders byte stream
Acknowledgement - identifies the number of the byte
the sender of this segment expects to receive next
Hlen - specifies the length of the segment header in 32 bit
multiples. If there are no options, the Hlen = 5 (20 bytes)
Code - used to determine segment purpose, e.g. SYN,
ACK, FIN, URG
TCP data format (cont.)
Window - Advertises how much data this station is willing
to accept. Can depend on buffer space remaining.
Checksum -Verifies the integrity of the TCP header and
data. It is mandatory.
Urgent pointer - used with the URG flag to indicate
where the urgent data starts in the data stream. Typically
used with a file transfer abort during FTP or when pressing
an interrupt key in telnet.
Options -used for window scaling, SACK, timestamps,
maximum segment size etc.
IP Address
Unique addresses in the world
An IP address is 32 bits, noted in dotted decimal notation:
192.78.32.2

Host and Prefix Part
An IP address has a prefix and a host part:
prefix:host
Prefix identifies a subnetwork
used for locating a subnetwork routing
Prefix is usually identified in a host using a subnet mask

Using a mask: address + mask
the mask is the dotted decimal representation of
the string made of : 1 in the prefix, 0 elsewhere
bit wise address & mask gives the prefix
example 1: 128.178.156.13 mask 255.255.255.0
here: prefix is 128.178.156.0
example 2: 129.132.119.77 mask 255.255.255.192
Q1: what is the prefix ?
Q2: how many host ids can be allocated ?

Address + Mask (example 2)
129.132.119.77 mask 255.255.255.192
Q1: what is the prefix ? A: 129.132.119.64

Q2: how many host ids can be allocated ?
A: 64 (minus the reserved addresses: 62)
1000 0001 1000 0100 0111 0111 0100 1101
1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1100 0000
129
255
132
255
119
255 192
77
64 addresses
26 6
1000 0001 1000 0100 0111 0111 0100 0000
129 132 119 64
IP V.6 vs. V.4 Datagram
IP v.4 header
Version (4 bits) 6 or 4
Hlen (4 bits) - Header length in 32 bit words, without
options (usual case) = 20
Type of Service (TOS 8 bits): now being used for QoS
Total length (16 bits) - length of datagram in bytes,
includes header and data
Time to live (TTL 8bits) - specifies how long datagram is
allowed to remain in internet (how many hops)
Protocol (8 bits) - specifies the format of the data area
Protocol numbers administered by central authority to guarantee
agreement, e.g. TCP=6, UDP=17

68
IP v.6 header
Version (4 bits) 6 or 4
Traffic Class (8 bits) - traffic priority delivery value.
Flow Label. 20 bits.
Used for specifying special router handling from source to
destination(s) for a sequence of packets.
Payload Length (16 bits) - Specifies the length of the data
Hop Limit (8 bits) - the same as TTL in the IPv4
Source address. 16 bytes.
Destination address. 16 bytes.
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70
IPv6 address 128 bit
IPv6 address is made of two parts: prefix and suffix (I.e interface-ids)

and hierarchical structure (that depends on format prefix, FP)
prefix:

suffix:

Link-local address (mandatory) is unique within a "link".

64 bits suffix 64 bits prefix
FP TLA NLA SLA
Interface ID
64 bits suffix 54 '0' bits 1111111010
FP Format prefix
TLA - Top-Level Aggregators
NLA - Next-Level Aggregators
SLA Service level Agreements
71
IPv6 Autoconfiguration and Renumbering
RFC 2462, IPv6 Stateless Address Autoconfiguration.

IPv6 includes stateless address autoconfiguration feature, which allows a
host to determine its own IPv6 address from its Layer 2 address.

The concept: A device generates a temporary address until it can
determine the characteristics of the network it is on. Then creates a
permanent address it can use based on that information.
In the case of multi-homed devices: Autoconfiguration is performed for
each interface separately
Stateless address
autoconfiguration
No central server needed to aid in address
configuration
Node forms its own suffix, checks if it is
unique
Node obtains prefix(es) from the nearest
router
Stateful address
autoconfiguration
Central server allocates full addresses
to nodes on request
DHCPv6 is the current protocol for
stateful address autoconfiguration
72
IPv6 Extended Unique Identifier (EUI-64)
RFC 2464
IPv6 link-local addresses and statelessly autoconfigured addresses
on Ethernet networks
used in Router Solicitation, Router Advertisement, Neighbor Solicitation,
Neighbor Advertisement and Redirect messages

48-bit MAC address
64-bit IPv6 EUI
IPv6 address Types
73
Unicast (1:1)

Anycast addresses :
nearest node of a set of nodes

currently only used to address
routers

Multicast (1:n)
communicate group of computers

No more broadcast in use
communicate specified one computer
RFC 4291 currently specifies the following restrictions on anycast addresses:
An anycast address must not be used as the source address of a packet.
Any anycast address can only be assigned to a router
74
Representation of IPv6 addresses
Colon hexadecimal notation -
805B:2D9D:DC28:0000:0000:FC57:D4C8:1FFF
Leading zeroes can be suppressed in the notation
805B:2D9D:DC28:0:0:FC57:D4C8:1FFF
Zero Compression in IPv6 Addresses
805B:2D9D:DC28::FC57:D4C8:1FFF
The double-colon can appear only once in any IP address.
IPv6 addresses can embed IPv4. The notation has the first 96 bits in
colon hex notation, and the last 32 bits in dotted decimal. eg
::212.200.31.255
Prefix notation can be used as with classless IPv4 addressing with
CIDR.
Example: 805B:2D9D:DC28::FC57:D4C8:1FFF/48
So why isnt it here yet ?
No clear move to IPv6
Lack of smooth migration plans
Investments in IPv4
Software availability - Available from Microsoft Windows XP sp2
Developments in IP v4
Use of NAT
CIDR
Planning of Hierarchies and use of Autonomous Areas
IPsec implemented in IPv4
Other Points
Router Upgrades to handle IPv6 OSPFv3

Tunneling IPv6 over IPv4
IPv6 can operate within a closed or private network environment
Currently across a public networks, such as the Internet, have to cross an
IPv4 domain
IPv6 packets can be encapsulated within IPv4
Encapsulated packets can then travel transparently across an IPv4 routing domain
Tunneling can be used by routers and hosts
IPv4
IPv6
Network
IPv6
Network
Tunnel: IPv6 in IPv4 packet
IPv6
Host
Dual-Stack
Router
Dual-Stack
Router
IPv6
Host
IPv6 Header IPv4 Header
IPv6 Header
Transport
Header
Data
Data
Transport
Header
MOBILE NETWORKS
77
Cellular Technology Defined:
A communications system which serves users via radio
waves (a radio air interface) by connecting the users mobile
terminal to the antennas at the nearest cell base station.
The cell base station antennas can be tower mounted; rooftop
mounted; mounted on water tanks; or hidden from sight for
aesthetic purposes. Average base station coverage area
today: 2-5 miles radius.

The system functions by re-using frequencies at the low-
powered cell base stations throughout a cellular market area,
and handing off calls in progress from one cell base station to
another as users move throughout the market area.

7
9
Course Content
1. Introduction
What is telecom ?
2. Telephony history form Bell to analog switch
3. Telecom Network
Switching
telecom services
4. Moving to Digital
5. Basic Signaling (SS7)
6. ISP / Data network
7. Mobile

Telecom Network Elements
80
Core network
SDH Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (Europe)
SONET Synchronous optical networking (USA)
Switches
Class 4 network services
Class 5 Line services
Signaling
IN Intelligent Network
SS7 (Common Channel) Signaling System #7
SIP Session Initiation Protocol
Access / Last mile
Twisted per
FTTx fiber to the X
Wireless

Call Base
Station Photos
Stealth Cell Sites
Mobile Telephone (Cellular Technology)
Wireless service is founded on one key concept known as frequency
re-use

Cellular service launched in Chicago in 1983
Traditionally, to engineer a cell network to support millions of users in
a metropolitan area, or thousands in a rural area, markets are broken
down into cells. Cells are geographic areas that use their own
sets of frequencies (channels) to support dozens of users
simultaneously.
Frequency re-use is accomplished by breaking down all available
frequencies into groups of 7 (N=7).

Each cell base station has its own transmission system (antennas) and
set of assignable channels.
N=7 Frequency Re-Use Cluster. Each hexagon represents a
base station with distinct set of frequencies. Note how identical
frequency sets are laid out symmetrically. This facilitates design
and engineering.
Two Antenna Types:
Omnidirectional: propagates radio signal equally
360 degrees, aka omni. Also called stick
antennas. (Lamp With No Shade)

Directional: radio energy is focused in a specific
direction at a specific beamwidth, based on a
reflector within the antenna housing. (Flashlight)
Five Key Components To Every
(Macro) Wireless Network:

Mobile phone, aka UE (user equipment) or
mobile terminal
Cell Base Station
Fixed network, AKA backhaul network
Mobile Switching Center (MSC)
Interconnection to PSTN and Internet

BTS
BSC
MSC
VLR HLR AuC EIR
PSTN,
ISDN...
OMC
OMC
NMC
X.25 links
GSM interfaces
Voicemail Server
SM-SC
MS (Mobile Station)
BSS (Base Station System)
NSS
(Network Switching
Subsystem)
OMM (Operations & Maintenance
Management)
MS
Key design and engineering concepts that drive
cellular technology:

Frequency Re-Use supports simultaneous use of hundreds or
thousands of frequencies (channels) to exponentially increase
system capacity
Call Handoffs seamless transfer of a call / transmission in
progress from one base station to an adjacent (neighbor) base
station
Frequency Agility: in handsets / terminals ability of cell phones to
operate on any one of dozens or hundreds of possible frequencies.
Call handoff cannot occur without this ability.

Working together, these concepts support basic cellular
operation.

Generations Of Wireless
Wireless Service(s)
Cellular service first launched in 1983 in Chicago, Illinois by
Illinois Bell.
First generation (1G) service:
All analog, more prone to noise, crosstalk, call drops
Limited system capacity
Used 850 Mhz frequency spectrum
1983 1994
KEY DIFFERENTIATOR: first instance of frequency re-use to
exponentially increase capacity over previous mobile systems
Second generation (2G) service:
Also known as PCS (Personal Communication Service)
Co-existed with analog service for 15 years
Used different frequency spectrum (1900 Mhz / 1.9 Ghz)
KEY DIFFERENTIATOR: all digital service

Wireless Service(s) Continued:
Third generation (3G) service:
All digital
Always On Internet access
High-speed access and transmission (> 384 Kbps)
Technologies: UMTS (GSM-based), CDMA 1X-EVDO
KEY DIFFERENTIATOR: supports sustainable multimedia
transmissions (i.e. voice, video, text, image, video)
Fourth generation (4G)
Launching in 2009 with Clearwire WiMax launch
Key technologies: WiMax (802.16) and LTE (Long Term Evolution)
KEY DIFFERENTIATOR: super-fast access and transmissions tens
of Megabits. Technology built into laptops.

Generations Of Wireless
1983 Present: The NIMBY phenomenon. Not In My
Backyard. Wireless subscribers desire demand great
cellular coverage but protest when base station towers are
installed in areas where ugly towers are not desired.
2006 Present: Backhaul network congestion and
bottlenecking due to proliferation and popularity of wireless
data technologies and services, based on 3G rollouts.
Traditionally, base station-to-MSC (switch) connections
have been one or two DS-1 circuits. This traditional
model is quickly becoming outmoded as the backhaul
network now has huge potential to become a bottleneck.
Adding more and more DS-1 circuits becomes expensive.
Solution? Ethernet in the backhaul network: simple,
known technology. Ultimately less expensive than
multiple DS-1 circuits.
2010: Radio spectrum is becoming a precious and
increasingly scarce commodity. Also, data traffic vs.
revenue dichotomy.
Major Challenges :
INCREASED CAPACITY
number of cells in the reuse patteThe GSM system provides a greater
subscriber capacity than analogue systems.
GSM allows 25 kHz per user, that is, eight conversations per 200 kHz
channel pair (a pair comprising one transmit channel and one receive
channel).
Digital channel coding and the modulation used makes the signal
resistant to interference from cells where the same frequencies are re-
used (co-channel interference); a Carrier to Interference Ratio (C/I) level
of 12 dB is achieved, as opposed to the 18 dB typical with analogue
cellular.
This allows increased geographic reuse by permitting a reduction in the
rn.
FEATURES OF GSM (1)
AUDIO QUALITY
Digital transmission of speech and high performance digital signal
processors provide good quality speech transmission.
Since GSM is a digital technology, the signals passed over a digital air
interface can be protected against errors by using better error
detection and correction techniques.
In regions of interference or noise-limited operation the speech quality
is noticeably better than analogue.

USE OF STANDARDISED OPEN INTERFACES
Standard interfaces such as C7 and X25 are used throughout the
system. Hence different manufacturers can be selected for different
parts of the PLMN.
There is a high flexibility in where the Network components are
situated.
FEATURES OF GSM (2)
IMPROVED SECURITY AND CONFIDENTIALITY
GSM offers high speech and data confidentiality.
Subscriber authentication can be performed by the system to check if
a subscriber is a valid subscriber or not.
The GSM system provides for high degree of confidentiality for the
subscriber. Calls are encoded and ciphered when sent over air.
The mobile equipment can be identified independently from the mobile
subscriber. The mobile has a identity number hard coded into it when it
is manufactured. This number is stored in a standard database and
whenever a call is made the equipment can be checked to see if it has
been reported stolen.

FEATURES OF GSM (3)
CLEANER HANDOVERS
GSM uses Mobile assisted handover technique.
The mobile itself carries out the signal strength and quality
measurement of its server and signal strength measurement of its
neighbors.
This data is passed on the Network which then uses sophisticated
algorithms to determine the need of handover.

SUBSCRIBER IDENTIFICATION
In a GSM system the mobile station and the subscriber are
identified separately.
The subscriber is identified by means of a smart card known as a
SIM.
This enables the subscriber to use different mobile equipment while
retaining the same subscriber number.
FEATURES OF GSM (4)
GSM Voice and Data Call Architecture
Voice Calls Path
Data Calls Path
Packet Data
MS Mobile Station = phone + SIM card
BTS Base Transceiver Station
BSC Base Station Controller
HLR Home Location Register
MSC Mobile services Switching Centre
VLR Visitor Location Register
AUC Authentication Centre
Stand-alone or integrated in HLR
EIR Equipment Identity Register
For blacklisting stolen and unwanted
equipment
SMSC Short Message Service Support
Centre
VMS Voice Messaging System
PrePaid Node Hosting prepaid service system
IN Intelligent Network services
PSTN Public Switched Telephone Network
PABX Private Automatic Branch Exchange

MSC/VLR

IN
BSC
SMSC
EIR
INTERNET
Mobilink PSTN
BSC

PrePaid
Node
VMS
HLR
MSC
w
AUC
NETWORK COMPONENTS
The Mobile services Switching Centre (MSC) co-ordinates the setting
up of calls to and from GSM users.
It is the telephone switching office for MS originated or terminated
traffic and provides the appropriate bearer services, teleservices and
supplementary services.
It controls a number of Base Station Sites (BSSs) within a specified
geographical coverage area and gives the radio subsystem access to
the subscriber and equipment databases.
The MSC carries out several different functions depending on its
position in the network.
When the MSC provides the interface between PSTN and the BSS in
the GSM network it is called the Gateway MSC.
Some important functions carried out by MSC are Call processing
including control of data/voice call setup, inter BSS & inter MSC
handovers, control of mobility management, Operation &
maintenance support including database management, traffic
metering and man machine interface & managing the interface
between GSM & PSTN N/W.

Mobile Switching Centre (MSC)
Mobile Station (MS)
The Mobile Station consists of the Mobile Equipment (ME) and the
Subscriber Identity Module (SIM).
Mobile Equipment
The Mobile Equipment is the hardware used by the subscriber to
access the network.
The mobile equipment can be Vehicle mounted, with the antenna
physically mounted on the outside of the vehicle or portable mobile
unit, which can be handheld.
Mobiles are classified into five classes according to their power rating.

CLASS POWER OUTPUT
1 20W
2 8W
3 5W
4 2W
5 0.8W
MS & ME
The SIM is a removable card that plugs into the ME.
It identifies the mobile subscriber and provides information about the
service that the subscriber should receive.
The SIM contains several pieces of information
International Mobile Subscribers Identity (IMSI) - This number
identifies the mobile subscriber. It is only transmitted over the air
during initializing.
Temporary Mobile Subscriber Identity ( TMSI ) - This number also
identifies the subscriber. It can be alternatively used by the system.
It is periodically changed by the system to protect the subscriber
from being identified by someone attempting to monitor the radio
interface.
Location Area Identity ( LAI ) - Identifies the current location of the
subscriber.
Subscribers Authentication Key ( Ki ) - This is used to authenticate
the SIM card.
Mobile Station International Standard Data Number ( MSISDN ) -
This is the telephone number of the mobile.
SIM (1)
Most of the data contained within the SIM is protected against reading
(eg Ki ) or alterations after the SIM is issued.
Some of the parameters ( eg. LAI ) will be continuously updated to
reflect the current location of the subscriber.
The SIM card can be protected by use of Personal Identity Number
( PIN ) password.
The SIM is capable of storing additional information such as
accumulated call charges.
G S M
FULL SIZE SIM CARD MINI SIM CARD
SIM (2)
98 XXX 12345
CC
NDC
SN

CC NDC SN
= Country code
= National Destination Code
= Subscriber Number
Mobile Station International Subscribers Dialling Number ( MSISDN ) :
Human identity used to call a MS
The Mobile Subscriber ISDN (MSISDN) number is the telephone number
of the MS.
This is the number a calling party dials to reach the subscriber.
It is used by the land network to route calls toward the MSC.

MSISDN

MCC MNC MSIN
404 XX 12345..10
MCC
MNC
MSIN
= Mobile Country Code ( 3 Digits )
= Mobile Network Code ( 2 Digits )
= Mobile Subscriber Identity Number
International Mobile Subscribers Identity ( IMSI ) :
Network Identity Unique to a MS
The International Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI) is the primary identity
of the subscriber within the mobile network and is permanently
assigned to that subscriber.
The IMSI can be maximum of 15 digits.

IMSI
TAC FAC SNR
6 2 6 1
TAC
FAC
SNR
SP
SP
= Type Approval Code
= Final Assembly Code
= Serial Number
= Spare
International Mobile Equipment Identity ( IMEI ) :
IMEI is a serial number unique to each mobile
Each MS is identified by an International Mobile station Equipment Identity
(IMEI) number which is permanently stored in the Mobile Equipment.
On request, the MS sends this number over the signaling channel to the
MSC.
The IMEI can be used to identify MSs that are reported stolen or operating
incorrectly.

IMEI
The HLR contains the master database of all subscribers in the PLMN.
This data is remotely accessed by the MSCs and VLRs in the
network. The data can also be accessed by an MSC or a VLR in a
different PLMN to allow inter-system and inter-country roaming.
A PLMN may contain more than one HLR, in which case each HLR
contains a portion of the total subscriber database. There is only one
database record per subscriber.
The subscribers data may be accessed by the IMSI or the MSISDN.
The parameters stored in HLR are
Subscribers ID (IMSI and MSISDN )
Current subscriber VLR.
Supplementary services subscribed to.
Supplementary services information (eg. Current forwarding
address ).
Authentication key and AUC functionality.
TMSI and MSRN
HOME LOCATION REGISTER (HLR)
The Visited Location Register (VLR) is a local subscriber database,
holding details on those subscribers who enter the area of the
network that it covers.
The details are held in the VLR until the subscriber moves into the
area serviced by another VLR.
The data includes most of the information stored at the HLR, as well
as more precise location and status information.
The additional data stored in VLR are
Mobile status ( Busy / Free / No answer etc. )
Location Area Identity ( LAI )
Temporary Mobile Subscribers Identity ( TMSI )
Mobile Station Roaming Number ( MSRN )
The VLR provides the system elements local to the subscriber, with
basic information on that subscriber, thus removing the need to
access the HLR every time subscriber information is required.

VISITOR LOCATION REGISTER (VLR)
The AUC is a processor system that perform authentication function.
It is normally co-located with the HLR.
The authentication process usually takes place each time the
subscriber initializes on the system.
Each subscriber is assigned an authentication key (Ki) which is
stored in the SIM and at the AUC.
A random number of 128 bits is generated by the AUC & sent to the
MS.
The authentication algorithm A3 uses this random number and
authentication key Ki to produce a signed response SRES( Signed
Response ).
At the same time the AUC uses the random number and
Authentication algorithm A3 along with the Ki key to produce a
SRES.
If the SRES produced by AUC matches the one produced by MS is
the same, the subscriber is permitted to use the network.
Authentication Centre (AUC)
HLR AUC
TRIPLES
RAND, Kc , SRES
VLR
RAND Kc SRES
RAND
SRES
SRES
SRES = SRES
BTS
A5 ,
HYPERFRAME NUM
Kc
AIR INTERFACE
ENCRYPTION
MS
A3 , A8 , A5 , Ki
SRES =
A3 (RAND , Ki )
Kc =
A8 (RAND , Ki )
Ki, A3, A8
A3 ( RAND, Ki ) = SRES
A8 ( RAND, Ki ) = Kc
Triples
Generated
AUTHENTICATION PROCESS
HANDOVER
The GSM handover process uses a mobile assisted technique for
accurate and fast handovers, in order to:
Maintain the user connection link quality.
Manage traffic distribution
The overall handover process is implemented in the MS,BSS & MSC.
Measurement of radio subsystem downlink performance and signal
strengths received from surrounding cells, is made in the MS.
These measurements are sent to the BSS for assessment.
The BSS measures the uplink performance for the MS being served
and also assesses the signal strength of interference on its idle
traffic channels.
Initial assessment of the measurements in conjunction with defined
thresholds and handover strategy may be performed in the BSS.
Assessment requiring measurement results from other BSS or other
information resident in the MSC, may be perform. in the MSC.
HANDOVER
The MS assists the handover decision process by performing certain
measurements.
When the MS is engaged in a speech conversation, a portion of the
TDMA frame is idle while the rest of the frame is used for uplink
(BTS receive) and downlink (BTS transmit) timeslots.
During the idle time period of the frame, the MS changes radio
channel frequency and monitors and measures the signal level of
the six best neighbor cells.
Measurements which feed the handover decision algorithm are
made at both ends of the radio link.

HANDOVER (Cont)
At the MS end, measurements are continuously signalled, via the
associated control channel, to the BSS where the decision for
handover is ultimately made.
MS measurements include:
Serving cell downlink quality (bit error rate (BER) estimate).
Serving cell downlink received signal level, and six best neighbor
cells downlink received signal level.
The MS also decodes the Base Station ID Code (BSIC) from the six
best neighbor cells, and reports the BSICs and the measurement
information to the BSS.
MS END
HANDOVER
The BTS measures the uplink link quality, received signal level, and
MS to BTS site distance.
The MS RF transmit output power budget is also considered in the
handover decision.
If the MS can be served by a neighbor cell at a lower power, the
handover is recommended.
From a system perspective, handover may be considered due to
loading or congestion conditions. In this case, the MSC or BSC
tries to balance channel usage among cells.
BTS END
HANDOVER

During the conversation, the MS only transmits and receives for one
eighth of the time, that is during one timeslot in each frame.
During its idle time (the remaining seven timeslots), the MS switches to
the BCCH of the surrounding cells and measures its signal strength.
The signal strength measurements of the surrounding cells, and the
signal strength and quality measurements of the serving cell, are
reported back to the serving cell via the SACCH once in every
SACCH multiframe.
This information is evaluated by the BSS for use in deciding when the
MS should be handed over to another traffic channel.
This reporting is the basis for MS assisted handovers.
MS IDLE TIME REPORTING
HANDOVER
MEASUREMENT IN ACTIVE MODE
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 1 2
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 1 2
Frame 24 Frame 25 Idle Frame Frame 0
Frame 24 Frame 25 Idle Frame Frame 0
1 2 3 1 2 1 2
1. MS receives and measures signal strength on serving cell(TS2).
2. MS transmits
3. MS measures signsl strength for at least one neighbor cell.
4. MS reads BSIC on SCH for one of the 6 strongest neighbor.
4
Downlink
Uplink
HANDOVER
Maximum 32 averaging of RSS takes place.
Practically a cell neighbors can be equipped for a cell.
If high numbers of neighbors are equipped, then the accuracy of RSS is
decreased as should have 8 to 10 neighbors.
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NUMBER OF NEIGHBORS
HANDOVER
NUMBER OF NEIGHBORS
In one SACCH multiframe there are 104 TDMA frames.
Out of this 104 frames 4 frames are idle and are used to decode the
BSIC.
Remaining 100 TDMA frames are used to measure RSS( Received Signal
Strength) of the neighbor.
If 25 neigbors are equipped, then in one SACCH multiframe each
neigbor is measured 100/25 = 4 times and averaged out. This
produces a less accurate value.
If 10 neigbors are equipped, then in one SACCH multiframe each
neigbor is measured 100/10 = 10 times and averaged out. This
produces a more accurate value.

HANDOVER
GSM causes its own time interference.
The MS has a omni-directional antenna. Much of the MS power goes to
the server but a lot is interfering with surrounding cells using the
same channel.
The TDMA frames of adjacent cell are not aligned since they are not
synchronised. Hence the uplink in the surrounding cell suffers from
interference.

INTERFERENCE ON IDLE CHANNEL
Channel 10
Cell 1
Channel 10
Cell 2
HANDOVER
The BSS keeps on measuring the interference on the idle timeslots.
Ambient noise is measured and recorded 104 times in one SACCH
multiframe.
These measurements are averaged out to produce one figure.
The BSS then distributes the idle timeslots into band 0 to band 5.
Since the BSS knows the interference level on idle timeslots, it uses this
data to allocate the best channel first and the worst last.
INTERFERENCE ON IDLE CHANNEL
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Inteference on idle channel measured on Idle Timeslot by BSS
HANDOVER
The following measurements is be continuously processed in the BSS :
i) Measurements reported by MS on SACCH
- Down link RXLEV
- Down link RXQUAL
- Down link neighbor cell RXLEV
ii) Measurements performed in BSS
- Uplink RXLEV
- Uplink RXQUAL
- MS-BS distance
- Interference level in unallocated time slots

Every SACCH multiframe (480 ms) a new processed value for each of the
measurements is calculated..

HANDOVER
HANDOVER
Handover is done on five conditions
Interference
RXQUAL
RXLEV
Distance or Timing Advance
Power Budget

Interference - If signal level is high and still there is RXQUAL problem,
then the RXQUAL problem is because of interference.
RXQUAL - It is the receive quality. It ranges from 0 to 7 , 0 being the
best and 7 the worst
RXLEV - It is the receive level. It varies from -47dBm to -110dBm.
Timing Advance - Ranges from 0 to 63.
Power budget - It is used to save the power of the MS.

HANDOVER CONDITIONS
HANDOVER
Handover takes place in the same cell from one timeslot to another
timeslot of the same carrier or different carriers( but the same cell).
Intra-cell handover is triggered only if the cause is interference.
Intra-cell handover can be enabled or disabled in a cell.

HANDOVER TYPES
Intra-Cell Handover
BSC
BTS
Call is handed
from timeslot 3 to timeslot 5
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
HANDOVER
Handover takes place between different cell which are controlled by the
same BSC.

HANDOVER TYPES
Intra-BSC Handover
BSC1
BTS1
Call is handed from timeslot 3
of cell1 to timeslot 1 of cell2 .
Both the cells are controlled
by the same BSC.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
HANDOVER
different BSC.

HANDOVER TYPES
Inter-BSC Handover
BSS1
BTS1
by the different BSC.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
BSS2
MSC
BTS2
HANDOVER
different BSC and each BSC is controlled by different MSC.

HANDOVER TYPES
Inter-MSC Handover
BSS1
BTS1
by the different BSC, each BSC
being controlled by different MSC.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
BSS2
MSC1
BTS2
MSC2
HANDOVER
LOCATION UPDATE
MSC should always know the location of the MS so that it can contact it
by sending pages whenever required.
The mobile keeps on informing the MSC about its current location area
or whenever it changes from one LA to another.
This process of informing the MSC is known as location updating.
The new LAI is updated in the VLR.
LAI = MCC + MNC + LAC
MCC MNC LAC
3 digits
1-2 digits Max 16 bits
MCC = Mobile country code.
MNC = Mobile Network Code.
LAC = Location area code. Identifies a location area within a GSM
PLMN network. The maximum length of LAC is 16 bits. Thus 65536
different LA can be defined in one GSM PLMN.
LOCATION UPDATE
Normal location update
Periodic location update
IMSI attach

Normal Location Update
1. Mobile powers on and is idle.
2. Reads the LAI broadcast on the BCCH.
3. Compares with the last stored LAI and if it is different does a
location update.

LOCATION UPDATE TYPES

LTE
The driving forces The telco point of view
Addressing the trend of declining ARPU
Delivery of higher bandwidth services and capacity
Reducing OPEX & Cost/MB
Proliferation of emerging devices, with rich mobile
applications and video
Quad-play (bundle)
Multiple screen offerings
Addressing shortage in bandwidth
Leveraging existing 3G infrastructure

Regulation
Re-allocation of older spectrum for 4G technologies
Open access & net neutrality
130
Standards bodies
131
IMT-Advanced
802.X LAN/WLAN
IMT Expected Targets
IMT- Advanced (IMT-2000 become 3G)
high quality mobile services
user equipment suitable for worldwide use
userfriendly applications, services and equipment
worldwide roaming capability
Improve wireless performance
Better signal reception and better coverage
Increase spectrum efficiency
More subscribers and more data transfer in the same spectrum
Flat all-IP network architecture
High mobility up to 500 Km/H
enhanced peak data rates to support advanced services and
applications
100 Mbit/s (UL 50 Mbit/s DL) for high mobility
1 Gbit/s for low mobility
Low latency <50ms

132
4G Enabling Technology
Some key technologies made 4G possible
Both WiMAX and LTE use:
OFDM, OFDMA and SC-FDMA
Channel dependent scheduling
Adaptive coding and modulation (ACM)
Multiple-In-Multiple-Out (MIMO) antenna
processing
Turbo coding and decoding

133
OFDMA Flexibility
With OFDMA the user allocation is flexible
Can change from frame to frame
Multiple allocations for several applications
Allocation changes
In WiMAX every 5 ms
In LTE every 1 ms
134
frequency
frequency
time
OFDMA
Burst
Burst
Burst
Single Carrier FDMA (SC-FDMA)
A major problem with OFDM and OFDMA is high
peak-to-average power ratio (PAPR)
Transmitted amplitude with large variation
Requires a linear amplifier at transmitter
Linear amplifies consumes high power
OK at base station
For mobile station, this consumes battery
LTE uses a solution for UL: SC-FDMA
Single carrier transmission

135
MIMO
Transmit diversity:
Same modulation symbols sent from all Tx M antennas
Receiver combines the signal from N antennas
Useful to increase performance against fading
Spatial multiplexing:
Different modulation symbols sent from M Tx antennas
Receiver received the signal from N antennas
Useful to increase data rate if channel is good
WiMAX uses up to 2x2. LTE uses up to 4x4

136
MIMO Radio Channel
Multiple antennas at both the base station and terminal can
significantly increase data rates with sufficient multipath
Reduce noise
Reduce handoffs and disconnecting
So, What will be the bandwidth ?
138
WiMax is dead (?)
139
LOCATION UPDATE
MS MSC BSS
RACH
Imme. Assign
Location update request
Authentication request
Authentication response
DTI<CICMD>
DTI<CICMP>
Cipher mode command
Cipher mode complete
Location update accepted
IMSI ATTACH
Saves the network from paging a MS which is not active in the system.
When MS is turned off or SIM is removed the MS sends a detach signal to
the Network. It is marked as detached.
When the MS is powered again it reads the current LAI and if it is same does
a location update type IMSI attach.
Attach/detach flag is broadcast on the BCCH sys info.

PERIODIC LOCATION UPDATE
Many times the MS enters non-coverage zone.
The MS will keep on paging the MS thus wasting precious resources.
To avoid this the MS has to inform the MSC about its current LAI in a set
period of time.
This time ranges from 0 to 255 decihours.
Periodic location timer value is broadcast on BCCH sys info messages.

During conversation user talks alternatively.
In DTX mode of operation the transmitter are switched on only for
frames containing useful information.
Helps to increase battery life and reduce interference level.
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DISCONTINOUS TRANSMISSION
SID
IMPLEMENTATION OF DTX
Voice Activity Detector ( VAD )

Determines which specific block of 20ms from the speech coder contains
speech.
Removes stationary noise.
Inserts comfort noise.
The frames containing this background noise are called SID frames and
are sent in blocks of 8 frames within every 104 frame block.
VAD Speech / No speech
20 ms speech
block
1
4
4

Thank You!!!

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