Design concepts of steam cycle power

plants
Steam power plant
A steam power plant continuously converts the energy stored in fossil fuels (coal,oil,natural
gas) or fissile fuels (uranium, thorium) into shaft work and ultimately into electricity.
The working fluid is water which is sometimes in the liquid phase and sometimes in the
vapour phase.
The Rankine cycle is a model that is used to predict the performance of steam engines. The
Rankine cycle is an idealised thermodynamic cycle of a heat engine that converts heat into
mechanical work.
Rankine cycle
Each process in the vapor power cycle can be assumed
to be an ideal process.
Steam bolier: reversible constant pressure heat addition
Turbine: reversible adiabatic expansion
Condenser:reversible constant pressure heat rejection
Pump: reversible adiabatic compression
Applying the steady flow energy equation to each of the process
on the basis of unit mass of fluid (neglecting K.E and P.E and heat
losses)
S.F.E.E for boiler

S.F.E.E for turbine

S.F.E.E for condenser

S.F.E.E for pump
Efficiency of the rankine cycle is given by:

Pump work is usually small compared to turbine
work and is usually neglected

Economizer, evaporator and superheater:

Economizer, evaporator and superheater:
Economizer:
Water is sensibly heated in the economizer in the liquid
phase at certain pressure till it becomes saturated liquid
Evaporator
Phase change occurs by absorbing the latent heat of
vaporization at that pressure
Superheater
Saturated vapor is further heated at constant pressure

Internal irreversibiltiy in rankine cycle
Internak irreversibilty is caused by fluid, friction,throttiling and
mixing.
Turbine efficiency:


Pump efficiency:


Thus the amount of work realised from turbine decreases and the
amount of power supplied to pump increaes.
External irreversibilty

Carnot cycle
An ideal but non practical cycle giving the maximum
possible thermal efficiency for a cycle and operating
between on selected0maximum and minimum
temperatures

Mean temperature of heat addition:

The area under 4-1 is equal to area under 5-6.



Efficiency:
=
Effect of super heat

Effect of inlet pressure
With increase in pressure we can see that mean temperature
of heat addition increases .
But this is limited by the maximum temperature of steam
inlet into the turbine(metallurgical limit)
For the same, maximum inlet steam temperature increase in
pressure is again limited by the allowable moisture content in
the turbine exit(generally around 12 percent)
So for a given inlet steam temperature and allowable
moisture content in the turbine exit there would only be one
maximum temperature

Reheating of steam
If a steam pressure higher than maximum pressure
is to be used, in order to limit the quality to 0.88 at
the turbine exhaust, reheating has to be adopted.
All the steam after partial expansion in the turbine
is brought back to the boileer, reheated by
combusstion gases and then fed back to thew
turbine for futher expansino.
Reheating of steam
Efficiency:

wether the cycle efficiency improves with reheat
depends upon the wether the mean temperature of
heat addition in proceeas 2s-3 is higher than in
process 6s-1






By increasing the number of reheats, still higher
steam pressures coul;d be used, but the mechanical
stresses increase in much higher proportions than
the pressure because of prevailing high
temperature.

regeneration
In order to increase the mean temperature of heat
addition and reduce the thermal ireversibitilty
,attention was so far confined to increasing the amount
of heat supplied at higher temperatures, such as
increasing superheat, using higher pressure, steam
temperature and reheat.
The mean temperature of heatv addition can also be
increased by reducing the amount of heat added at low
temperatures(in liquid phase)
Ideal regeneration cycle

Regenerative feed water heating
In practical regenerative cycle, the feed water is
heated by steam extracted from intermediate stages
of turbine before it enters the boiler.
Lets take the example of a cycle with two
regenerative direct contact feed water heatwers (
extracted steam mixes adiabatically with the feed
water)
Turbine work:

Pump work:

Heat input:

Efficiency:
Efficiency increase due to regeneratin:
Mean temperature with regeneration:

Mean temperature without regeneration:


Since mean temperature with heat generation is gigher than mean
temperature without heat generation, we see that efficiency
increases.

Effects of regenerative feed water heating for same
turbine output:
Increase in efficiency
Increasesd steam flow rate
Reduced steam flow to condenser

Feedwater heaters
Open type feed water heater
extracted steam is allowed to mix with
feedwater and both leave the heater at common temperature.
Closed type feed water heater:
are shell and tube heat exchangers
where the feedwater flows through the tubes and exteracted
steam condenses outside the tubes in the shell
the heat released by the condensatin is transferred thropugh the
walls of tubes .the condensate ,sometimes heater dri[p ,then pases
throug a trap into the next lowerr pressure heater.

Super critical pressure cycle

Working Of A Power Plant Boiler
Boiler in a power plant has two functions:

The Combustion system converts energy in coal to Heat

Water and steam system converts the heat to steam at high pressures and temperatures

Details:
The higher the furnace temperature, the faster the steam production. The saturated steam
thus produced can then either be used immediately to produce power via a turbine or else
may be further superheated to a higher temperature; this notably reduces suspended water
content making a given volume of steam produce more work.

Any remaining heat in the combustion gases can then either be evacuated or made to pass
through an economiser, the role of which is to warm the feed water before it reaches the
boiler



Type of Boiler(Power Generation)
According to flow of water & hot gases:
Water tube (4,500 - 20,000 kg/hour of steam)
Fire tube (8000 - 12000 kg/hour of steam)


Water vs Fire tube boilers
Fire tube boilers have low initial cost & are more compact

But they are more likely to explosion, water volume is large & due to poor circulation they
cannot meet quickly the change in steam demand

For the same output the outer shell of fire tube boilers is much larger than the shell of
water-tube boiler

Water tube boilers require less weight of metal for a given size, are less liable to explosion,
produce higher pressure, are accessible and can respond quickly to change in steam demand

The efficiency of water-tube boilers is more.
Design of steam powerplant

Major Components & their function
Economiser

Most of the sensible heat is absorbed in the Economiser. These are a set of coils made from
steel tubes located in the tail end of a boiler. The hot gases leaving the boiler furnace heat the
water in the coils. The water temperature is slightly less than the saturation temperature. From
the economiser the water is fed to the 'drum'.

Air pre-Heating:

The hot gases coming out of the economizer is used to preheat the air before
supplying it to the combustion chamber. An increase in air temperature of 20
degrees can be achieved by this method. The pre heated air is used for combustion
and also to dry the crushed coal before pulverizing


Major Components & their function
Soot Blowers
The fuel used in thermal power plants causes soot and this is deposited on the boiler
tubes, economizer tubes, air pre heaters, etc. Soot blowers control the formation of soot
and reduce its corrosive effects. The advantages are that they are placed far away from
the high temperature zone, they concentrate the cleaning through a single large nozzle
rather than many small nozzles and there is no concern of nozzle arrangement with
respect to the boiler tubes.

Major Components & their function
Superheater
The superheater consists of a superheater header and superheater elements.
Steam from the main steam pipe arrives at the saturated steam chamber of the
superheater header and is fed into the superheater elements. Superheated steam
arrives back at the superheated steam chamber of the superheater header and is
fed into the steam pipe to the cylinders. Superheated steam is more expansive.

Reheater
The reheater functions similar to the superheater in that it serves to elevate the
steam temperature. Primary steam is supplied to the high pressure turbine. After
passing through the high pressure turbine, the steam is returned to the steam
generator for reheating (in a reheater) after which it is sent to the low pressure
turbine. A second reheat cycle may also be provided.
http://www.brighthubengineering.com/power-
plants/23879-how-does-a-power-plant-boiler-work-
water-and-steam-system/#
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steam-
electric_power_station
Essentials of Steam Power Plant Equipment
1. A furnace to heat the fuel
2. Steam generator or boiler containing water
3. Main power unit consisting turbines and engine.
4. Piping system to convey stem and water.





In addition to the above equipment the plant requires various auxiliaries and accessories
depending upon the availability of water, fuel and the service for which the plant is
intended.
A steam power plant using steam as working substance works basically on Rankine cycle.
Steam is generated in a boiler, expanded in the prime mover and condensed in the
condenser and fed into the boiler again.
The different types of systems and components used in steam power plants follows :

(a) High pressure boiler

(b) Prime mover

(c) Condensers and cooling towers

(d) Coal handling system

(e) Ash and dust handling system

(f) Draught system

(g) Feed water purification plant

(h) Pumping system

(i) Air preheater, economizer, super heater, feed heaters.
STEAM TURBINES
A steam turbine is a mechanical device that extracts thermal energy from pressurized
steam, and converts it into rotary motion.

Because the turbine generates rotary motion, it is particularly suited to be used to drive an electrical
generator about 80% of all electricity generation in the world is by use of steam turbines


Steam turbines are made in a variety of sizes ranging from small 0.75 kW units (rare) used as mechanical
drives for pumps, compressors and other shaft driven equipment, to 1,500,000 kW turbines used to
generate electricity.
STEAM TURBINES CLASSIFCATION
Steam Turbines have been classified by :

(a) Details of stage design as
(i) impulse
(ii) Reaction

b) Steam supply and exhaust conditions as
(i) Condensing
(ii) Back Pressure (Non Condensing)
(iii) Mixed Pressure
(iv) Reheat
(v) Extraction type (Auto or Controlled)

(c) Casing or shaft arrangement as
(i) Single Casing
(ii) Tandem compound
(iii) Cross Compound
Impulse Turbine
Reaction Turbine
STEAM TURBINES PRINCIPLES AND DESIGN
An ideal steam turbine is considered to be an isentropic process, or constant entropy
process, in which the entropy of the steam entering the turbine is equal to the entropy of
the steam leaving the turbine.

The interior of a turbine comprises several sets of blades, or buckets as they are more commonly referred
to.

One set of stationary blades is connected to the casing and one set of rotating blades is connected to the
shaft. The sets intermesh with certain minimum clearances, with the size and configuration of sets varying to
efficiently exploit the expansion of steam at each stage.
STEAM TURBINES EFFICIENCY
To maximize turbine efficiency the steam is expanded, generating work, in a number of stages.

These stages are characterized by how the energy is extracted from them and are known as either impulse
or reaction turbines.

Most steam turbines use a mixture of the reaction and impulse designs : each stage behaves as either one
or the other, but the overall turbine uses both.

Typically, higher pressure sections are impulse type and lower pressure stages are reaction type.
STEAM TURBINES : PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS
Isentropic Efficiency

Power Characteristics: The power generation, actual or implied, together with expected generation at
design or clean conditions.

Efficiency / Power Deviation

Steam Velocities

Steam Rates

Operating Loss Cost: Tracks current and historical lost opportunity both instantaneous and cumulative.

Thermal Efficiency

Mechanical Efficiency


STEAM TURBINES: PRECAUTIONS AND SPEED REGULATION
If water gets into the steam and is blasted onto the blades (moisture carryover) rapid
impingement and erosion of the blades can occur, possibly leading to imbalance and
catastrophic failure.

The control of a turbine with a governor is essential, as turbines need to be run up slowly, to
prevent damage while some applications (such as the generation of alternating current
electricity) require precise speed control.


CONDENSORS
The main purposes of the condenser are to condense the exhaust steam from the turbine for reuse in the
cycle and to maximize turbine efficiency by maintaining proper vacuum.

As the operating pressure of the condenser is lowered (vacuum is increased), the enthalpy drop of the
expanding steam in the turbine will also increase. This will increase the amount of available work from the
turbine (electrical output).

By lowering the condenser operating pressure, the following will occur :
(a) Increased turbine output
(b) Increased plant efficiency
(c) Reduced steam flow (for a given plant output)
CONDENSORS : TYPES
There are two primary types of condensers that can be used in a power plant :
(a) Direct Contact :
Direct contact condensers condense the turbine exhaust steam by mixing it directly with cooling water.
The older type Barometric and Jet-Type condenser operate on similar principles.


(b) Surface Condenser:

The surface condenser is a shell and tube heat exchanger in which cooling water is circulated through the
tubes. The exhaust steam from the low pressure turbine enters the shell where it is cooled and converted to
condensate (water) by flowing over the tubes as shown in the diagram. Such condensers use steam ejectors or
rotary motor-driven exhausters for continuous removal of air and gases from the steam side to maintain
vacuum.
CONDENSORS : COMPONENTS
The shell is the condenser's outermost body and contains the heat exchanger tubes. The shell is fabricated
from carbon steel plates and is stiffened as needed to provide rigidity for the shell. For most water-cooled
surface condensers, the shell is under vacuum during normal operating conditions.

At the bottom of the shell, where the condensate collects, an outlet is installed. This is called hotwell.

At each end of the shell, a sheet of sufficient thickness usually made of stainless steel is provided, with holes
for the tubes to be inserted and rolled. The inlet end of each tube is also bell mouthed for streamlined entry of
water. This is called tube sheets.

Vacuum Systems

The tube sheet at each end with tube ends rolled, for each end of the condenser is closed by a fabricated box
cover known as a waterbox, with flanged connection to the tube sheet or condenser shell

CONDENSATE PUMPS
Condensate pumps are those kinds of pumps that are used to collect and transport condensate back into a
steam system for reheating and reuse, or to remove unwanted condensate.

Condensate pumps have a tank in which condensate can accumulate. The tank size varies depending on the
application. The accumulating liquid raises a float switch which energizes the pump. The pump then runs until
the level of liquid in the tank is lowered.

Types:
Boiler Feed Pump :
This pump closes the boiler, steam and condensate loop by returning the condensate back into the system for
reuse.

Sump Pump :
This pump is installed in compartments to remove the unwanted build-up of water.
Circulating Pumps

Condenser circulating pumps are used to pump cooing water through the condenser. The source of the
cooling water can be the sea, lake, river or a cooling tower. Low speed horizontal-double suction-
volute centrifugal pumps are used for this application. This pump has a simple but rugged design that
allows ready access to interior for examination and rapid dismantling if repairs are required
COOLING TOWER
A cooling tower extracts heat from water by
evaporation. In an evaporative cooling tower, a small
portion of the water being cooled is allowed to evaporate
into a moving air stream to provide significant cooling to
the rest of that water stream.

Cooling Towers have one function : Remove heat from
the water discharged from the condenser so that
the water can be discharged to the river or re-circulated
and reused.

http://www.ignou.ac.in/upload/Unit-2-58.pdf
REFERENCES