Self-Efficacy and FL Education

Self-Efficacy and Foreign Language Education
Nicole Mills
mills@fas.harvard.edu

National Middle East Language Resource Center
Brigham Young University
April 19, 2013
Presentation

What is Self-Efficacy?

What does self-efficacy do?

Where does self-efficacy come from?

What are current areas of self-efficacy research?

Why would you assess self-efficacy in the foreign language classroom?

How do you assess self-efficacy?

What are the results of self-efficacy research in foreign language learning?

How does current self-efficacy research link to the teaching of less commonly taught
languages?

How do I foster self-efficacy in the LCTL classroom?

What is Self-Efficacy?

Social Cognitive Theory
Individuals possess a system of self-beliefs that
enables them to exercise control over their
thoughts, feelings, and actions
Self-Efficacy
Peoples judgments of their capabilities to
organize and execute courses of action required to
attain designated types of performances (Bandura, 1997)
Self-Efficacy

What people think, believe, and feel affects how they
behave (Bandura, 1986)

Self-efficacy is often a better predictor of success than
actual abilities

Beginning with Graham & Weiners review of motivational
research in 1996, we have learned that students self-efficacy
more consistently predicts academic performance over and
above other motivational constructs

Great voices of self-efficacy

They are able who think they are able
Virgil (ancient Roman poet)

A man who doubts himself is like a man who
would enlist in the ranks of his enemies and bear
arms against himself. He makes failure certain
by him being the first person convinced of it.
Alexandre Dumas (French author)

Whether you think that you can or you cant, youre
usually right.
Henry Ford (Founder, Ford Motor Company)

If I have the belief that I can do it, I shall surely
acquire the capacity to do it even if I may not have
it at the beginning.
Mahatma Gandhi (activist)
Great Voices of Self-Efficacy

Clearly it is not simply a matter of how capable one
is, but of how capable one believes oneself to be.
Frank Pajares (Former associate professor of educational psychology, Emory
University)
Influences pursued courses of action and
decisions
Influences the degree of expended effort
Influences the level of perseverance and
resilience to adversity in the face of obstacles
Influences affective states
Influences the degree of success realized
-Bandura, 1997
Where does self-efficacy
come from?
Where does self-efficacy come from?
Sources of Self-Efficacy:

Mastery Experiences
Vicarious Experiences
Emotional States
Social/ Verbal Persuasions

(Bandura, 1997)
Mastery Experiences
Outcomes perceived as successful raise self-
efficacy, those interpreted as failures lower self-
efficacy

Individuals
Engage in activities
Interpret the results of their actions
Develop beliefs about their capabilities to engage in
subsequent tasks and activities
Observations of others

Effects of Modeling

If the models attributes are similar to their own
(ex: peers, etc.), the influence of the vicarious experience
is strong

Emotional States
Emotions and Feelings experienced during task
influence self-efficacy beliefs and performance

Negative thoughts/ Fears often ensure
inadequate performance

Verbal Persuasions
Feedback from others (teachers? Peers? Mentors?)

Positive persuasions encourage & empower

Negative persuasions defeat and weaken SE
beliefs

Importance of appropriate, rigorous,
and non-debilitating feedback
What are current areas of
self-efficacy research?
Current areas of self-efficacy research
Career self-efficacy
Sports self-efficacy
Self-efficacy and diets
Self-efficacy and pain management
Parental self-efficacy
Self-efficacy and Depression
Gender gaps and Self-efficacy
Teacher Self-efficacy
Student Self-efficacy
Why would you assess
self-efficacy in the foreign
language classroom?
Why would you assess self-efficacy in the
foreign language classroom?
Evaluate students perceived competence in the course objectives

Evaluate the influence of a new pedagogical approach on students self-
efficacy (pre vs. post)

Evaluate the influence of pedagogical interventions (ex: workshops, etc.)
on students or teachers self-efficacy

Evaluate the influence of teaching learning strategy techniques (ex:
reading strategies, etc.) on students self-efficacy

Longitudinal evaluation of self-efficacy beliefs (language requirement?)

Other reasons?

How do you assess
self-efficacy?
How do you assess self-efficacy?(quantitatively)

Creation of self-efficacy questionnaires:
The questions should be phrased in terms of can do as opposed to
will do

Questions should be linked to the outcome measure or the outcome
objectives

How certain are you that you can

Rate your degree of confidence by recording a number from 0 to 100

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Cannot Moderately Highly Certain
Do at all Certain can do can do
What are the results of
self-efficacy research in foreign
language learning?

Self-efficacy references in foreign language learning
Student self-efficacy beliefs:

Self-efficacy of college intermediate French students: Relation to Motivation
and Achievement (Mills, Pajares, & Herron, 2007)

A Re-evaluation of the Role of Anxiety: Self-efficacy, Anxiety, & their Relation
to Reading & Listening Proficiency (Mills, Pajares, &Herron, 2006)

A Guide du Routard Simulation: Increasing Self-Efficacy in the Standards
through Project-based Learning (Mills, 2009)

Global Simulation and the Writing Self-beliefs of Intermediate French
Students (Mills & Pron, 2009)*

Longitudinal Perceptions of Efficacy and Value in the French Language
Requirement (Mills, November 2010) *

Learning strategies and self-efficacy:
Learner strategies and self-efcacy: Making the connection (Graham,
2007)
Strategy instruction in listening for lower-intermediate learners (Graham,
& Macaro, 2008)

Teacher self-efficacy beliefs:
Teacher Self-efficacy of Graduate Teaching Assistants of French (native
vs. non-native) (Mills & Allen, 2007)
Teacher self-efficacy in literature of teaching assistants of French (Mills,
2011)*
Action Research: Bridging Theory and Practice (Mills, 2013)

Results from Self-Efficacy Research
Three Sample Research Studies:

Global Simulation and the Writing Self-beliefs of
Intermediate French Students (Mills & Pron, 2009)
(quantitative)

Longitudinal Perceptions of Efficacy and Value in the
French Language Requirement (Mills, 2010) * (quantitative)

Teaching assistants self-efficacy in teaching literature:
Sources, personal assessments, and consequences
(Mills, 2011)* (qualitative)

How can you evaluate the influence of a
new pedagogical approach or new
curriculum on students self-efficacy?
Global simulation and the
development of writing self-efficacy
in French
Mills & Pron, 2009
International Journal of
Applied Linguistics
Global simulation and the development of writing
self-efficacy in French (Mills & Pron, 2009)

Global Simulation: Students create a fictive yet culturally
grounded world, assume the role of a self-developed
character, and collaborate with fellow community members
(Magnin, 1997)

For this project , you will become the tenants of a Parisian building, located
in the Montmartre quarter and you will write a book of your memoirs of the
events in the building. As such, you are going to pretend to be a French or
francophone person living in France. You will develop your own character
and tell the story of his/her life in the first person. (- Mlanie Pron)
self-efficacy in French

This study evaluated how global simulation influenced the
development of intermediate-French students writing self-
beliefs (writing self-efficacy*)

Participants include 134 students enrolled in an Intermediate French I
global simulation curriculum

Writing self-efficacy evaluated at the beginning (PRE) and end of the
semester (POST)

Writing self-efficacy beliefs are defined as individuals
judgments of their competence in writing,
specifically their judgments of their ability to write different
writing tasks and of their possession of various writing skills
- Pajares & Johnson
Composition Grading Criteria
Content
Grammar
Creativity
Expression
Organization
Sample Writing Self-Efficacy
Questionnaire
Directions: Please use the following scale to answer the following
statements. Circle the number that best describes how sure you are that you
can perform each of the French writing skills below.

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70___ 80_____90___100
No chance Completely Certain

Content (sample items)

Write in French about a variety of topics with precision and detail
Describe personal experiences fully when writing in French
Present arguments or points of view accurately and effectively when
writing in French

Questionnaire
Expression (sample items): How sure are you that you can

Write in French with fluency and ease of expression
Write in French with a variety and complexity of structures
Vary sentence lengths and patterns when writing in French
Write in French using a wide range of vocabulary

Questionnaire
Grammar (sample items): How sure are you that you can

Write in French with a good control of a full range of grammatical
structures
Make few conjugation errors when writing in French
Make few agreement errors when writing in French
Make few verb tense errors when writing in French
Make few errors in spelling when writing in French
Make few grammatical errors when writing in French

Sample Writing Self-Efficacy Questionnaire
Organization (sample items) : How sure are you that you can

Creativity (sample items) : How sure are you that you can

Write in French with an underlying logical organization
Write with a clear sense of beginning and closure
Accurately and effectively use transitions when writing in French

Write in French with creativity.
Interest and engage the reader when writing in French


Table . Writing Self-Efficacy Beliefs Before and After Global Simulation
_________________________________________________________
Scale Pretest Mean Posttest Mean

Writing self-efficacy (WSE) 59.6 73.5
WSE Creativity 61.4 78.2
WSE Organization 63.7 78.3
WSE Grammar 56.6 68.8
WSE Content 62.2 76.1
WSE Expression 57.3 70.9
___________________________________________________________

RESULTS:

Significant differences were found in Intermediate French students writing self-
efficacy in grammar, content, creativity, expression, and organization
(pre post)

Development of Writing Self-Efficacy
IMPLICATIONS: Why might global simulation enhance
students self-efficacy to write creatively?
Creative nature of writing assignments

Choice of topics to motivate students and promote exploration (Campbell, 1998;
Walker 2003)

Liberation from own identity exploration of a new, altered, or desired self

students self-efficacy to write in an organized manner?
Consistent writing practice & instructors guiding comments on students first drafts

Writing workshops

students self-efficacy to write with grammatical accuracy?
Independent exploration of grammar websites & resources for personal
grammar questions

Grading rubrics focused on grammatical precision in first drafts (conjugations

Process-oriented writing

students self-efficacy to appropriately communicate content?
Collective writing process

Personal investment in characters identity

Progressive development of the complexity of the character throughout the
global simulation experience

Choice of topics that attempt to hook students (Campbell, 1998; Walker,
2003)

Learners are provided with choice (Walker, 2003)

students self-efficacy to write with enhanced expression?
Liberation from elementary-level writing (simple sentence structures, simple ideas,
etc.)

Capacity to express themselves in French writing in similar ways as they do
when writing in English

Grading procedure which encourages development of expression

Use of textual references as models

Ability to write their persona into the text

How can we use self-efficacy to assess students
perceived development in the 5 Cs of the
Standards of FL learning from the beginning
to the end of the language requirement?
Longitudinal Perceptions of Efficacy and
Value in the Language Requirement
Mills, November 2010
ACTFL
French Language Requirement
Longitudinal Evaluation of students perceived efficacy in relation to the Standards
of Foreign Language learning

1. Is there a change in French students self-efficacy to Communicate in
French from the beginning to the end of the language requirement?

2. Is there a change in French students self-efficacy in their understanding
of the practices, perspectives and products of the French Culture?

3. Is there a change in French students self-efficacy to make Connections
between French and other disciplines?

4. Is there a change in French students self-efficacy to understand the
French language and culture through Comparisons to their own
language and culture?

5. Is there a change in French students self-efficacy to participate in
francophone Communities at home and around the world?

Approximately 130 students participating in one of the two
sequences (Fall 2007-Spring 2009):

Sequence A:

Beginning French I Beginning French II Intermediate I Intermediate II

Sequence B:

French for False Beginners Intermediate French I Intermediate French II

Sample Self-efficacy Items: Standards of FL Learning
On a scale from 0 (no chance) to 100 (completely certain), how sure are
you that you can perform each of the tasks below with reasonable
grammatical accuracy, fluency, and ease? Remember that you may use
any number between 0 and 100.
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
No 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
Chance Certain Certain Certain Certain Certain

Communication: Interpersonal (Sample items)

I can introduce someone and use basic greetings and leave-taking expressions (Oral)

I can actively participate in a debate (Oral)

I can participate in extended written chat conversations. (Writing)

I can express needs in written form. (Writing)


Communication: Interpretive (Sample items)

I can understand the main points in short newspaper articles about
current and familiar topics. (reading)

I can understand literary texts with a basic vocabulary and a simple
straightforward plot. (reading)

I can understand the details of most TV shows (listening)

I can understand the main ideas of a short documentary (listening)

Sample Self-efficacy Items:
Standards of FL Learning

Communication: Presentational (Sample items)

I can write a review of a short film (writing)

I can write an analytical essay (writing)

I can present rehearsed skits. (oral)

I can give prepared presentations about a cultural topic. (oral)


Culture: Products, Practices, Perspectives (sample items)

I am familiar with the role of contemporary figures in the French/
francophone culture. (Perspectives)

I can describe customs and traditions of the target culture. (practices)

I can recognize important monuments and symbols of French and
francophone culture. (products)

Connections (sample items)

I can relate content from other subject areas (history, politics, economics,
literature) to topics discussed in French class.

I can discuss how members of the French/francophone culture view the
United States.

Comparisons (sample items)

I can compare and contrast social conventions of the target culture with
those of my own culture.

I can analyze and explain local, regional, and national differences in the
countries where French is spoken and compare it to my own country.

Self-Efficacy Beliefs Before and After Beginning French I
____________________________________________________________________
Scale Pretest Mean Posttest Mean

Self-efficacy: Communication
Interpersonal Oral 10.9 63.6
Interpersonal Writing 4.1 59.4
Presentation Speaking 9.8 62.7
Presentation Writing 4.2 50.0
Interpretive Listening 7.2 54.2
Interpretive Reading 11.5 69.1
Self-efficacy: Culture
Products 9.9 46.2
Practices 9.9 49.3
Perspectives 11.9 38.0
Self-efficacy: Communities 27.6 58.8
Self-efficacy: Comparisons 23.8 49.7
Self-efficacy: Connections 50.0 66.0
______________________________________________________________________

Self-Efficacy in Communication
Change French 110 to French 140: +54.6
Statistically Significant change: Fr110, Fr120, Fr130, sequence
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Pre-Fr110 Post-
Fr110
Pre-Fr120 Post-
Fr120
Pre-Fr130 Post-
Fr130
Pre-Fr140 Post-
Fr140
SE in Communication
Self-Efficacy in Communication

Self-Efficacy in Communication means at the end of the language
requirement:
Interpersonal mode in writing: 81.1*
Interpersonal mode in speaking: 79.3
Interpretive mode in reading: 78.7
Presentational mode in writing: 77.3
Presentational mode in speaking: 70.1
Interpretive mode in Listening: 67.2

Self-Efficacy in Culture
Statistically Significant change: Fr110, Fr120, Fr130, Fr140, sequence
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Pre-
Fr110
Post-
Fr110
Pre-
Fr120
Post-
Fr120
Pre-
Fr130
Post-
Fr130
Pre-
Fr140
Post-
Fr140
SE in Culture
Self-Efficacy in Culture
Similar trends in increased perceived competence from the beginning to
the end of the language requirement in the:

cultural practices (mean change= 40.2 points)
cultural products (mean change =37.2 points)
cultural perspectives (mean change =35.4 points)

Self-Efficacy in Culture means at the end of the language requirement:

Cultural practices: 83.1
Cultural products: 80.1
Cultural perspectives: 70.9*

Self-Efficacy in Connections
Statistically Significant change: Fr110, Fr120, Fr130, Fr140, sequence

0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Pre-
Fr110
Post-
Fr110
Pre-
Fr120
Post-
Fr120
Pre-
Fr130
Post-
Fr130
Pre-
Fr140
Post-
Fr140
SE in Connections
Self-Efficacy in Comparisons
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Pre-
Fr110
Post-
Fr110
Pre-
Fr120
Post-
Fr120
Pre-
Fr130
Post-
Fr130
Pre-
Fr140
Post-
Fr140
SE in Comparisons
Self-Efficacy in Communities
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Pre-
Fr110
Post-
Fr110
Pre-
Fr120
Post-
Fr120
Pre-
Fr130
Post-
Fr130
Pre-
Fr140
Post-
Fr140
SE in Communities
Exploratory Analyses: Self-Efficacy
Same Exploratory Analyses conducted for Self-efficacy (SE)

Standard Mean change for Men Mean Change for
Women
SE in Culture* 27.3 points 48.3 points
SE in Connections* 13.6 points 40.8 points
SE in Comparisons* 8.7 points 42.0 points
SE in Communities * 10.2 points 37.8 points
*Significant Differences by gender.
**No calculated significant differences by gender in SE in Communication
Targeting course objectives: Example of French 121
(French for False beginners)
Particular course objectives were separated and
evaluated independently to determine whether students
perceive a greater sense of competence in their ability to
perform these functions or tasks from the beginning to
the end of French 121.

Exploratory Analyses: Item Analyses by Course
Despite gains made in cultural understanding (mean increase= +24.4), the
students did not perceive themselves as competent in cultural understanding
(mean=64.8) as in communication (mean=79.0).

At the end of French 121, students felt most confident in the following Culture items:
I can provide information about French lodging and housing (cultural products)

I can provide information about French/ francophone cuisine. (cultural products)

I can research, plan, and participate in a cultural event (cultural practices)

I can identify patterns of behavior typically associated with the culture such as eating
and shopping customs, leisure activities, and national holidays (cultural practices)

I can participate in real or simulated cultural events (i.e., family activities and holiday
celebrations. (cultural practices)

Exploratory Analyses: Item Analyses by Course
At the end of French 121, students felt least confident in the following
Culture items (all associated with cultural perspectives) :

I can recognize how practices and products (politics, art, architecture, music
and literature) reflect the viewpoints of people in French-speaking countries

I am familiar with the role of contemporary and historical events in French /
francophone culture

I am familiar with the role of historical people in the French / francophone
culture.

I am familiar with the role of contemporary figures in the French/
francophone culture.

Exploratory Analyses Conclusions

Curricular Revisions?

Greater emphasis on culture?

Greater emphasis on cultural perspectives?

Inclusion of objectives within syllabus linked to cultural
understanding and cultural perspectives?
Future Applications
How can departments know if their students attain [learning] outcomes, and to what
extent?
- Byrnes (2006), The Outcomes of Collegiate Foreign Language Programs: Specifications,
Assessment, Evaluation

Results from questionnaires and item analyses can be evaluated by course
coordinators and Director of language programs

Questionnaires used for this project may be easily adapted and used by other
languages (Arabic, Persian, etc.)

Information about students perceived levels of competence and value in the Standards
of Foreign Language Learning may provide valuable information and maintain the
importance of the language requirement to future students, the Department , and
the Administration

How can we further explore the self-
efficacy beliefs of foreign language
teachers?
Teaching assistants self-efficacy in
teaching literature:
Sources, personal assessments, and consequences
Mills, 2011
Modern Language Journal
Teacher self-efficacy
Teacher self-efficacy beliefs refer to teachers
judgments of their capabilities to bring about
desired outcomes related to student learning and
engagement
Do TAs believe there is a two-tiered system? How does it
influence the professionalization and socialization of graduate
students?
Do they perceive literary study and instruction as distinctly
different from language pedagogy ? (Byrnes, 2001)

How do TAs perceive themselves as teachers of literature?

How do they perceive their competency as language
versus literature instructors?

What are the sources and consequences of their beliefs?
Teacher self-efficacy

The Cyclical Nature of Teacher Efficacy, from Tschannen-Moran, Woolfolk Hoy, & Hoy (1998)
Participants
Semi-structured Interview based on Teacher self-efficacy model and
completion of teacher self-efficacy in literature Likert scale questionnaire

10 participants enrolled in doctoral program in French literature
1 native speaker/ 9 non-native speakers
One 2
nd
year participant
Four 3
rd
year participants
Three 4
th
year participants
Two 5
th
year participants

Sources of Teacher Self-Efficacy in Literature

How do you know how to teach literature?

Observations of literature professors 8 comments
- observation of model professors 3 comments
- observation of anti-models 5 comments

Knowledge of language pedagogy only 4 comments

Trial and Error 3 comments

Experience as a literature student 2 comments

Common Sense 1 comment
Mastery Experiences

Have you had successful experiences teaching literature?

Have taught texts in language classes but not Literature 8 comments

Taught texts at the intermediate level 8 comments
- focus only on comprehension 5 comments
- do not focus on analysis 3 comments

No opportunity to teach literature 5 comments

Experience teaching literature at high school level or as a TA 4 comments

Taught texts at the elementary level 2 comments
Verbal Persuasions

Have you received feedback from others about your teaching of literature?

No 5 comments
- only for teaching language 5 comments

Very little 3 comments
- praise from teacher that he/she TAd for 1 comment
- praise from students (as TA) 1 comment
- feedback when giving presentations as graduate student 1 comment

Yes 2 comments

Are you influenced by other professors in your teaching of literature?

Yes 10 comments
- observation of class structure 7 comments
- observation of balancing discussion/ participation 5 comments
- observation of instructor errors/ ineffective practices 3 comments
- observation of content presentation 2 comments
- observation of formulation of guiding questions 2 comments
- observation of what causes student anxiety 2 comments
- observation of teachers feedback 2 comments
- observation of teacher enthusiasm 1 comments

Emotional Indicators

How do you feel while youre teaching literature?
Unsure 7 comments
- Project that in the future it will feel great 7 comments
- depends on literature content 1 comment
- minimal experience 1 comment
- anxiety for future position/ job 1 comment
- anxiety for the job market 1 comment

Happy/ Energized 3 comments
Less confident 2 comments
- unaware of strategies for teaching literature 1 comment
- minimal experience teaching literature 1 comment
Satisfied 2 comment
Competent 1 comment
Emotional Indicators
Its hard to say just because Ive had a lot more
experience with the language side, so I have a lot more data
points, you know, in my memory. In terms of how I feel
about teaching literature versus language, I think that I
would feel a lot less secure but, you know, in reality, I
think all of the graduate students just kind of feel like,
How are we? You know, well do it because you
always overcome your difficulties
Analysis of Teaching Task
How well do you feel that you teach literature?

Less confident in ability to teach literature 6 comments
- no knowledge of explicit models/ methods 3 comments
- no experience 4 comments
- no feedback 1 comment
- based only on observation of other literature instructors 1 comment
- no direct line between language and literature teaching 1 comment

Projects future competence to teach literature 4 comments
- passion for literature 3 comments
- knowledge of language pedagogy may transfer to literature instruction 2 comments
- will gain confidence with practice/ experience 1 comment
Analysis of Teaching Task
I feel that I gain an important skill set
[in my teaching of lower level courses]
but itstheres justits not a direct
line from teaching language to
teaching literature.
Analysis of Teaching Context
How can we address support issues within French literature doctoral programs?

Provide graduate students with experience teaching literature courses 8 comments
Experience as a TA for an undergraduate literature course 3 comments
Coordinator observation during literature lesson at lower levels 2 comments
Inclusion of more literature at the elementary/ intermediate level 2 comments
Course in the Teaching of Literature 1 comment
Increase presentations in graduate coursework 1 comment
Increased lit faculty involvement in development as a literature instructor 1 comment
Increased feedback from literature faculty on literature syllabus development 1 comment
Opportunity to teach a lesson in a graduate course in area of specialization 1 comment
Focus half of the pedagogy course on the teaching of literature 1 comment
Consequences of Teacher self-efficacy
Would you implement innovative or experimental strategies in
literature instruction?

Definitely/ Absolutely 9 comments

Which innovative strategies?

Unsure/ Unaware of innovative strategies 9 comments
Discussion
TAs possessed a moderate level of TSE in literature (6.8/9)

TAs professed that 3 of the 4 sources of teacher self-efficacy were not
fostered

TAs felt more confident teaching elementary and intermediate-level
language courses than advanced level literature courses

Expressed that graduate program was highly effective in its formation of
literary scholars and language instructors but literature instruction is
perceived as a gap between these two holes
Discussion
Shulman (1987) claims that effective instruction requires that teachers possess:
pedagogical knowledge
content knowledge
pedagogical content knowledge**

The TAs appear to possess valuable pedagogical knowledge and content knowledge
but a (perceived) missing pedagogical knowledge component?

How could self-efficacy research link to
the teaching of less commonly taught
languages?

Ideas for Self-efficacy research within the LCTL context
LCTL classes typically consist of 1) heritage learners , 2) non heritage
language learners, and 3) students with heritage language
motivation (little or no fluency in the heritage language, but cultural background) (Van
Deusen-Scholl, 2003).
How do the self-efficacy beliefs of these three groups differ in the areas
of Communication, Culture, Connections, Communities, and
Comparisons (Standards of FL learning)?

What are the self-efficacy beliefs of heritage versus non-heritage language
learners in their capabilities to use standard versus non-standardized
varieties of a language?

How does the instructors choice of standard versus non-standardized
varieties of a language influence students self-efficacy beliefs? (Bergman,
2010; Al-Batal & Belnap, 2006)
Learning about culture has been identified as a key motivating
factor for [LCTL] students (Stenson et al, 1998, p. 7).
What are LCTL students self-efficacy beliefs in cultural understanding of
products, practices, and perspectives in a given curriculum?
What are LCTL teacher self-efficacy beliefs in their ability to effectively
teach cultural products, practices, and perspectives?

Students study LCTLs for both humanistic reasons (personal
enjoyment and interest) and utilitarian interests (improving career
prospects) (Murphy, Magnan, Back & Garrett-Rucks, 2009).
How do the self-efficacy beliefs of these two groups differ? How are they
similar?
Do our curricular plans meet their needs?

Freedman (2004) noted that language enrollment in LCTL
courses is steady at the first and second year level, but drops off
at higher levels of study

How do the students self-efficacy beliefs evolve from the beginning of
the first year to the end of the second year?

What would student interviews tell us about their perceived competence
and their beliefs about the perceived value of learning a LCTL at the
advanced level?

What do students deem important and valuable and how could this be
integrated into LCTL advanced level courses?

Wang (2009) discusses a need for increased solidarity, availability
of updated teaching materials, and collaboration among LCTL
instructors.
Do teacher self-efficacy beliefs evolve and develop from the beginning to the
end of a teacher training workshop or course (ex: STARTALK)? Why or why
not?

What are the teacher self-efficacy beliefs of LCTL instructors as they relate to
the development of teaching materials that align with current communicative,
post-communicative and literacy based teaching methodologies ?

What is the collective efficacy of LCTL instructors?

Haley & Ferro (2011) suggest that US language teacher programs
are typically geared toward instruction of commonly taught
languages and emphasize constructivist paradigms.

How does these teacher training programs influence the teacher self-
efficacy beliefs of LCTL instructors from a different cultural background
with different educational paradigms?

What are the teacher self-efficacy beliefs of LCTL versus commonly taught
language instructors enrolled in US teacher education programs?
Where and how do they differ? How could US teacher education programs
revise program curricula accordingly?

How do I foster self-efficacy
in the LCTL classroom?
How do I foster self-efficacy?

Foster self-directedness and pro-activity among students
Allow students to exercise control of their own learning
Allow students to problem-solve (inductive learning vs.
deductive learning)
Encourage students to set goals
Creation of a collaborative classroom shared knowledge
and decision making

(John Barrell, Working toward student self-direction and personal efficacy as educational goals)

Foster Mastery Experiences
Instructors could provide multiple opportunities for students
to experience success in the FL classroom.

Teacher guided activities and appropriate scaffolding
prepare students to be successful

Provide students with multiple opportunities to exchange
information, discuss opinions, and present ideas with their peers
in partners before large group discussion

Teachers in-class presentation and modelling of effective
language learning strategies
Foster Vicarious Experiences
Teacher in-class presentation and modeling
Model in-class speaking activities
Model texts or essays (written by native speakers, written by successful
former students, etc.)

Student observation of linguistically proficient peers
Inspire and enhance students perception of their potential
Students who have studied abroad or at the advanced level
Models of former student work (essays, final projects, videos, etc.)
Collaborative learning experiences (blogs, presentations, discussion boards) to
provide learners with opportunities to observe the successes of their
peers at similar proficiency levels.

Foster self-efficacy through Verbal
Persuasions
Teachers appropriate verbal feedback and encouragement

the teachers challenge is to ensure that their students internal
standards are
rigorous without being debilitating
realistic without being self-limiting
fluid without being wishy washy
consistent without being static Pajares, 2002
Foster self-efficacy by encouraging positive
emotional states

What causes anxiety according to FL students?

Non-Comprehension
Excessive error correction
Fear of peer/ teacher evaluation
Speed of the course
intimidating teachers
Comparison to native speaker performance

Rene von Wrde Students Perspectives on Foreign Language Anxiety
from Inquiry, Volume 8, Number 1, Spring 2003

Emotional States

How do I create a low-anxiety classroom environment?

Development of a sense of community (communality or
connectedness among students & teacher)

personal relationship with the teacher

Teachers attitude toward the language

Teachers who make the class fun to like learning or make the
class more animated or teachers who make it interesting by
using interesting situations grounded in engaging cultural
content

Rene von Wrde Students Perspectives on Foreign Language Anxiety from
Inquiry, Volume 8, Number 1, Spring 2003 / Mills, 2013

emotional states

How do I create a low-anxiety classroom environment?

Teacher repetition/ reinforcement

Teachers use of appealing and relevant topics

learner-centred curricula which allow students to become active
decision-makers and engage with a wide network of available
resources both inside and outside the classroom

freedom, choice, and experimentation

Rene von Wrde Students Perspectives on Foreign Language Anxiety
from Inquiry, Volume 8, Number 1, Spring 2003 / Mills, 2013
Foster collective efficacy
Fostering the sources of self-efficacy help to establish a
community of learners and classroom dynamic in which
learners create a shared sense of collective efficacy, or shared
belief in the class communitys ability to complete foreign
language tasks and communicate effectively in the target
language.
Yes, we canand collective efficacy

Fostering, enhancing, and assessing self-efficacy . Yes, we can! Yes, you can!
Further self-efficacy references
Reference list available online
Upcoming chapter that could be a good future resource:
Mills, N. A. (accepted, under review) Self-efficacy in Second Language Acquisition. In Eds. M.
Williams & S. Mercer, Multiple Perspectives on the Self . Multilingual Matters.

Email: mills@fas.harvard.edu

http://works.bepress.com/nicole_mills/

Thank you!

Self-Efficacy and FL Education

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