Chapter 2

Information
Concepts
Data & Information
Data is like raw materials.
Information is like finished goods produced after
processing raw material.
Features of Information:
Improves representation of an entity
Updates level of knowledge
Has specific value
Reduces uncertainty
Aids in decision making
Definition
The information can be defined as data which is
proposed into a form which is meaningful to the
recipient and is of real or perceived value in current
actions.
Data can be defined as groups of non-random
symbols in the form of text, images or voice, actions
and objects.
Communication Model for
MIS

This model is used in MIS.
The MIS is same as transmitter sends through reports to
various receivers.
It is decoded or interpreted by receiver.
A good MIS communicates the information without noise.

Information Presentation
Presentation of the information is an art.
The data may be collected in the best possible
manner and processed analytically, bringing lot of
value in the information; however, if it is not
presented properly, it may fail to communicate value
to the receiver.
The methods used for improving communication are
summarization and message routing.

Summarization
The concept of summarization is user to provide
information which is needed in the form and
content.
The information can be summarized in a number of
ways like Table, graphs etc.
The principle behind summarization is that too
much information causes noises and distortions.
The summarization suppresses the noise and the
distortions.

Message Routing
Another method of improving the degree of
communication is through message routing.
The principle is to distribute information to all those who
are accountable for the subsequent actions or decisions.
That is if the information is generated with a certain
purpose for a primary user, the information may have
secondary purposes to some other users in the
organization.
This is achieved by sending the copies of the documents
to all the concerned users.
The principle of the message routing achieves the spread
of information.
Methods to avoid misuse of
information
Method Reason
Delayed delivery of information A possibility of immediate action or decision
is reduced. It will have only a knowledge
value.
Change in the format and content
of the report.
Provide only that information which may be
needed, hence the misuse is averted.
Suppression and filtering of the
information of confidential and
sensitive nature.
To avoid the risk of exposure and the
misuse of information for achieving the
undesirable goals.
Suppress the details and
references of data and
information.
Make it difficult to collect, and process the
data at the user end to meet the personal
needs of information.
Truncated or lopsided
presentation
Make it difficult to read through the
information and avoid its probable misuse.
Attributes of Information
Following are the attributes of information:
1. Accuracy in representation
2. Form of presentation (qualitative/quantitative,
numeric/ graphic)
3. Frequency of reporting
4. Scope of reporting
5. Scope of collection
6. Relevance to decision making
7. Timeliness of reporting
Information: A quality product
Following parameters have impact on quality of
information:
Impartiality: the information contains no bias and collected
without any distorted view.
Validity: It should be related to purpose of information and
how it is used.
Reliability: It should be accurate.
Consistency: It should not be derived from wrong data.
Age: The use of information should not be decreased as days
pass on.
Classification of information
1. Action Vs. No-action Information: The information
which includes action is called an action information.
The information which communicates only the status of
situation is called no-action information.
2. Recurring Vs. Non-recurring Information: The
information generated at regular intervals is a recurring
information.
3. Internal Vs. External Information: The information
generated through the internal source of the
organization is called internal information. The
information generated through government reports,
industry survey is called external information.


4. Planning information: Specific standards used in
planning of an activity. E.g. time standards,
operational standards etc.
5. Control Information: Reporting the status of an
activity through a feedback mechanism is called
control information.
6. Knowledge: A collection of information through the
library reports & research studies forms a knowledge
base.

Classification of information
Information can also be classified based on its usage.
1. Organization information: The information used by
users in organization is called Organization
information.
2. Database Information: When the information is
accessed & stored from backend then it is called
Database Information.
3. Operational Information: When the information is
used in operations of business then it is called in
operational information.

Classification of information
Methods of Data Collection
1. Observation: first hand knowledge, dependent on
observer.
2. Experiment: information on specific parameter can
be obtained through this. Quality of information
depends on design of experiment.
3. Survey: One time. Interested population can be
studied. Quality of information depends on design
of questionnaire.
4. Subjective estimation: Expert opinions