Protists: Powerpoint Lectures For

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc.
publishing as Benjamin Cummings

PowerPoint Lectures for
Biology, Seventh Edition
Neil Campbell and J ane Reece
Lectures by Chris Romero
Chapter 28
Protists
Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Overview: A World in a Drop of Water
Even a low-power microscope
Can reveal an astonishing menagerie of
organisms in a drop of pond water
Figure 28.1
50 m
These amazing organisms
Belong to the diverse kingdoms of mostly
single-celled eukaryotes informally known as
protists
Advances in eukaryotic systematics
Have caused the classification of protists to
change significantly
Concept 28.1: Protists are an extremely
diverse assortment of eukaryotes
Protists are more diverse than all other
eukaryotes
And are no longer classified in a single
kingdom
Most protists are unicellular
And some are colonial or multicellular
Protists, the most nutritionally diverse of all
eukaryotes, include
Photoautotrophs, which contain chloroplasts
Heterotrophs, which absorb organic molecules
or ingest larger food particles
Mixotrophs, which combine photosynthesis
and heterotrophic nutrition
Protist habitats are also diverse in habitat
And including freshwater and marine
species
Figure 28.2ad
100 m
100 m
4 cm
500 m
The freshwater ciliate Stentor,
a unicellular protozoan (LM)
Ceratium tripos, a unicellular marine dinoflagellate (LM)
Delesseria sanguinea, a multicellular marine red alga
Spirogyra, a filamentous freshwater green alga (inset LM)
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Reproduction and life cycles
Are also highly varied among protists, with
both sexual and asexual species
A sample of protist diversity
Table 28.1
Endosymbiosis in Eukaryotic Evolution
There is now considerable evidence
That much of protist diversity has its origins in
endosymbiosis
The plastid-bearing lineage of protists
Evolved into red algae and green algae
On several occasions during eukaryotic
evolution
Red algae and green algae underwent
secondary endosymbiosis, in which they
themselves were ingested
Cyanobacterium
Heterotrophic
eukaryote
Primary
endosymbiosis
Red algae
Green algae
Secondary
endosymbiosis
Secondary
endosymbiosis
Plastid
Dinoflagellates
Apicomplexans
Ciliates
Stramenopiles
Euglenids
Chlorarachniophytes
Plastid
A
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Figure 28.3
Diversity of plastids produced by secondary
endosymbiosis
Concept 28.2: Diplomonads and parabasalids
have modified mitochondria
A tentative phylogeny of eukaryotes
Divides eukaryotes into many clades
Figure 28.4
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Amoebozoa
Diplomonads and parabasalids
Are adapted to anaerobic environments
Lack plastids
Have mitochondria that lack DNA, an electron
transport chain, or citric-acid cycle enzymes
Diplomonads
Diplomonads
Have two nuclei and multiple flagella
Figure 28.5a
5 m
(a) Giardia intestinalis, a diplomonad (colorized SEM)
Parabasalids
Parabasalids include trichomonads
Which move by means of flagella and an
undulating part of the plasma membrane
Figure 28.5b (b) Trichomonas vaginalis, a parabasalid (colorized SEM)
Flagella
Undulating membrane
5 m
Concept 28.3: Euglenozoans have flagella with
a unique internal structure
Euglenozoa is a diverse clade that includes
Predatory heterotrophs, photosynthetic
autotrophs, and pathogenic parasites
The main feature that distinguishes protists in
this clade
Is the presence of a spiral or crystalline rod of
unknown function inside their flagella
Flagella
0.2 m
Crystalline rod
Ring of microtubules
Figure 28.6
Kinetoplastids
Kinetoplastids
Have a single, large mitochondrion that
contains an organized mass of DNA called a
kinetoplast
Include free-living consumers of bacteria in
freshwater, marine, and moist terrestrial
ecosystems
The parasitic kinetoplastid Trypanosoma
Causes sleeping sickness in humans
Figure 28.7
9 m
Euglenids
Euglenids
Have one or two flagella that emerge from a
pocket at one end of the cell
Store the glucose polymer paramylon
Figure 28.8
Long flagellum
Short flagellum
Nucleus
Plasma membrane
Paramylon granule
Chloroplast
Contractile vacuole
Light detector: swelling near the
base of the long flagellum; detects
light that is not blocked by the
eyespot; as a result, Euglena moves
toward light of appropriate
intensity, an important adaptation
that enhances photosynthesis
Eyespot: pigmented
organelle that functions
as a light shield, allowing
light from only a certain
direction to strike the
light detector
Pellicle: protein bands beneath
the plasma membrane that
provide strength and flexibility
(Euglena lacks a cell wall)
Euglena (LM)
5 m
Concept 28.4: Alveolates have sacs beneath
the plasma membrane
Members of the clade Alveolata
Have membrane-bounded sacs (alveoli) just
under the plasma membrane
Figure 28.9
Flagellum
Alveoli
0.2 m
Dinoflagellates
Dinoflagellates
Are a diverse group of aquatic photoautotrophs
and heterotrophs
Are abundant components of both marine and
freshwater phytoplankton
Each has a characteristic shape
That in many species is reinforced by internal
plates of cellulose
Two flagella
Make them spin as they move through the
water
Figure 28.10
Flagella
Rapid growth of some dinoflagellates
Is responsible for causing red tides, which
can be toxic to humans
Apicomplexans
Apicomplexans
Are parasites of animals and some cause
serious human diseases
Are so named because one end, the apex,
contains a complex of organelles specialized
for penetrating host cells and tissues
Have a nonphotosynthetic plastid, the
apicoplast
Figure 28.11
Inside mosquito Inside human
Sporozoites
(n)
Oocyst
MEIOSIS
Liver
Liver cell
Merozoite
(n)
Red blood
cells
Gametocytes
(n)
FERTILIZATION
Gametes
Zygote
(2n)
Key
Haploid (n)
Diploid (2n)
Merozoite
Red blood
cell
Apex
0.5 m
Most apicomplexans have intricate life cycles
With both sexual and asexual stages that often require
two or more different host species for completion
An infected Anopheles
mosquito bites a person,
injecting Plasmodium
sporozoites in its saliva.
1 The sporozoites enter the persons
liver cells. After several days, the sporozoites
undergo multiple divisions and become
merozoites, which use their apical complex
to penetrate red blood cells (see TEM below).
2
The merozoites divide asexually inside the
red blood cells. At intervals of 48 or 72 hours
(depending on the species), large numbers of
merozoites break out of the blood cells, causing
periodic chills and fever. Some of the merozoites
infect new red blood cells.
3
Some merozoites
form gametocytes.
4
Another Anopheles mosquito
bites the infected person and picks
up Plasmodium gametocytes along
with blood.
5 Gametes form from gametocytes.
Fertilization occurs in the mosquitos
digestive tract, and a zygote forms.
The zygote is the only diploid stage
in the life cycle.
6
An oocyst develops
from the zygote in the wall
of the mosquitos gut. The
oocyst releases thousands
of sporozoites, which
migrate to the mosquitos
salivary gland.
7
Ciliates
Ciliates, a large varied group of protists
Are named for their use of cilia to move and
feed
Have large macronuclei and small micronuclei
The micronuclei
Function during conjugation, a sexual process
that produces genetic variation
Conjugation is separate from reproduction
Which generally occurs by binary fission
Figure 28.12
50 m
Thousands of cilia cover
the surface of Paramecium.
The undigested contents of food
vacuoles are released when the
vacuoles fuse with a specialized
region of the plasma membrane
that functions as an anal pore.
Paramecium, like other freshwater
protists, constantly takes in water
by osmosis from the hypotonic environment.
Bladderlike contractile vacuoles accumulate
excess water from radial canals and periodically
expel it through the plasma membrane.
Food vacuoles combine with
lysosomes. As the food is digested,
the vacuoles follow a looping path
through the cell.
Paramecium feeds mainly on bacteria.
Rows of cilia along a funnel-shaped oral
groove move food into the cell mouth,
where the food is engulfed into food
vacuoles by phagocytosis.
Oral groove
Cell mouth
Micronucleus
Macronucleus
FEEDING, WASTE REMOVAL, AND WATER BALANCE
Exploring structure and function in a ciliate
Contractile Vacuole
CONJUGATION AND REPRODUCTION
8
7
2
MICRONUCLEAR
FUSION
Diploid
micronucleus
Diploid
micronucleus
Haploid
micronucleus
MEIOSIS
Compatible
mates
Key
Conjugation
Reproduction
Macronucleus
Two cells of compatible
mating strains align side
by side and partially fuse.
1 Meiosis of micronuclei
produces four haploid
micronuclei in each cell.
2
3 Three micronuclei in each cell
disintegrate. The remaining micro-
nucleus in each cell divides by mitosis.
The cells swap
one micronucleus.
4
The cells
separate.
5
Micronuclei fuse,
forming a diploid
micronucleus.
6 Three rounds of
mitosis without
cytokinesis
produce eight
micronuclei.
7
The original macro-
nucleus disintegrates.
Four micronuclei
become macronuclei,
while the other four
remain micronuclei.
8
Two rounds of cytokinesis
partition one macronucleus
and one micronucleus
into each of four daughter cells.
9
Concept 28.5: Stramenopiles have hairy and
smooth flagella
The clade Stramenopila
Includes several groups of heterotrophs as
well as certain groups of algae
Most stramenopiles
Have a hairy flagellum paired with a smooth
flagellum
Smooth
flagellum
Hairy
flagellum
5 m Figure 28.13
Oomycetes (Water Molds and Their Relatives)
Oomycetes
Include water molds, white rusts, and downy
mildews
Were once considered fungi based on
morphological studies
Most oomycetes
Are decomposers or parasites
Have filaments (hyphae) that facilitate nutrient
uptake
The life cycle of a water mold
Figure 28.14
Cyst
Zoospore
(2n)
ASEXUAL
REPRODUCTION
Zoosporangium
(2n)
Germ tube
Zygote
germination
FERTILIZATION
SEXUAL
REPRODUCTION
Zygotes
(oospores)
(2n)
MEIOSIS
Oogonium
Egg nucleus
(n) Antheridial
hypha with
sperm nuclei
(n)
Key
Haploid (n)
Diploid (2n)
Encysted zoospores
land on a substrate and
germinate, growing into
a tufted body of hyphae.
1
Several days later,
the hyphae begin to
form sexual structures.
2 Meiosis produces
eggs within oogonia
(singular, oogonium).
3
On separate branches of the
same or different individuals, meiosis
produces several haploid sperm nuclei
contained within antheridial hyphae.
4
Antheridial hyphae grow like
hooks around the oogonium and
deposit their nuclei through
fertilization tubes that lead to the
eggs. Following fertilization, the
zygotes (oospores) may develop
resistant walls but are also
protected within the wall of the
oogonium.
5
A dormant period
follows, during which the
oogonium wall usually
disintegrates.
6
The zygotes germinate
and form hyphae, and the
cycle is completed.
7
The ends
of hyphae
form tubular
zoosporangia.
8
Each zoospor-
angium produces
about 30
biflagellated
zoospores
asexually.
9
The ecological impact of oomycetes can be
significant
Phytophthora infestans causes late blight of
potatoes
Diatoms
Diatoms are unicellular algae
With a unique two-part, glass-like wall of
hydrated silica
Figure 28.15
Diatoms are a major component of
phytoplankton
And are highly diverse
Figure 28.16
50 m
Accumulations of fossilized diatom walls
Compose much of the sediments known as
diatomaceous earth
Golden Algae
Golden algae, or chrysophytes
Are named for their color, which results from
their yellow and brown carotenoids
The cells of golden algae
Are typically biflagellated, with both flagella
attached near one end of the cell
Most golden algae are unicellular
But some are colonial
Figure 28.17
25 m
Brown Algae
Brown algae, or phaeophytes
Are the largest and most complex algae
Are all multicellular, and most are marine
Brown algae
Include many of the species commonly called
seaweeds
Seaweeds
Have the most complex multicellular anatomy
of all algae
Figure 28.18
Blade
Stipe
Holdfast
Kelps, or giant seaweeds
Live in deep parts of the ocean
Figure 28.19
Human Uses of Seaweeds
Many seaweeds
Are important commodities for humans
Are harvested for food
Figure 28.20ac
(a) The seaweed is
grown on nets in
shallow coastal
waters.
(b) A worker spreads
the harvested sea-
weed on bamboo
screens to dry.
(c) Paper-thin, glossy sheets
of nori make a mineral-rich wrap
for rice, seafood, and vegetables
in sushi.
Sea weed is good for you!
Alternation of Generations
A variety of life cycles
Have evolved among the multicellular algae
The most complex life cycles include an
alternation of generations
The alternation of multicellular haploid and
diploid forms
The life cycle of the brown alga Laminaria
Figure 28.21
Sporophyte
(2n)
Zoospores
Female
Gametophytes
(n)
MEIOSIS
FERTILIZATION
Developing
sporophyte
Zygote
(2n)
Mature female
gametophyte
(n)
Egg
Sperm
Male
Sporangia
Key
Haploid (n)
Diploid (2n)
The sporophytes of this seaweed
are usually found in water just below
the line of the lowest tides, attached
to rocks by branching holdfasts.
1
In early spring, at the end of
the main growing season, cells on
the surface of the blade develop
into sporangia.
2
Sporangia produce
zoospores by meiosis.
3
The zoospores are all
structurally alike, but
about half of them develop
into male gametophytes
and half into female
gametophytes. The
gametophytes look
nothing like the sporo-
phytes, being short,
branched filaments that
grow on the surface of
subtidal rocks.
4
Male gametophytes release
sperm, and female gametophytes
produce eggs, which remain
attached to the female gameto-
phyte. Eggs secrete a chemical
signal that attracts sperm of the
same species, thereby increasing
the probability of fertilization in
the ocean.
5
Sperm fertilize
the eggs.
6
The zygotes
grow into new
sporophytes,
starting life
attached to
the remains of
the female
gametophyte.
7
Concept 28.6: Cercozoans and radiolarians
have threadlike pseudopodia
A newly recognized clade, Cercozoa
Contains a diversity of species that are among
the organisms referred to as amoebas
Amoebas were formerly defined as protists
That move and feed by means of pseudopodia
Cercozoans are distinguished from most other
amoebas
By their threadlike pseudopodia
Foraminiferans (Forams)
Foraminiferans, or forams
Are named for their porous, generally
multichambered shells, called tests
Figure 28.22
20 m
Pseudopodia extend through the pores in the
test
Foram tests in marine sediments
Form an extensive fossil record
Radiolarians
Radiolarians are marine protists
Whose tests are fused into one delicate piece,
which is generally made of silica
That phagocytose microorganisms with their
pseudopodia
The pseudopodia of radiolarians, known as
axopodia
Radiate from the central body
Figure 28.23
200 m
Axopodia
Concept 28.7: Amoebozoans have lobe-
shaped pseudopodia
Amoebozoans
Are amoeba that have lobe-shaped, rather
than threadlike, pseudopodia
Include gymnamoebas, entamoebas, and
slime molds
Gymnamoebas
Gymnamoebas
Are common unicellular amoebozoans in soil
as well as freshwater and marine
environments
Most gymnamoebas are heterotrophic
And actively seek and consume bacteria and
other protists
Figure 28.24
Pseudopodia
40 m
Entamoebas
Entamoebas
Are parasites of vertebrates and some
invertebrates
Entamoeba histolytica
Causes amebic dysentery in humans
Slime Molds
Slime molds, or mycetozoans
Were once thought to be fungi
Molecular systematics
Places slime molds in the clade Amoebozoa
Plasmodial Slime Molds
Many species of plasmodial slime molds
Are brightly pigmented, usually yellow or
orange
Figure 28.25
4 cm
At one point in the life cycle
They form a mass called a plasmodium
Figure 28.26
Feeding
plasmodium
Mature
plasmodium
(preparing to fruit)
Young
sporangium
Mature
sporangium
Spores
(n)
Germinating
spore
Amoeboid cells
(n)
Zygote
(2n)
1 mm
Key
Haploid (n)
Diploid (2n)
MEIOSIS
SYNGAMY
Stalk
Flagellated cells
(n)
The feeding stage
is a multinucleate
plasmodium that lives
on organic refuse.
1 The plasmodium
takes a weblike form.
2
The plasmodium erects
stalked fruiting bodies (sporangia)
when conditions become harsh.
3
Within the bulbous
tips of the sporangia,
meiosis produces haploid
spores.
4
These cells are
either amoeboid or
flagellated; the two
forms readily convert
from one to the other.
6
The cells unite
in pairs (flagellated
with flagellated
and amoeboid with
amoeboid), forming
diploid zygotes.
7
The resistant spores disperse
through the air to new locations
and germinate, becoming active
haploid cells when conditions
are favorable.
5
The plasmodium
Is undivided by membranes and contains
many diploid nuclei
Extends pseudopodia through decomposing
material, engulfing food by phagocytosis
Cellular Slime Molds
Cellular slime molds form multicellular
aggregates
In which the cells remain separated by their
membranes
The life cycle of Dictyostelium, a cellular slime
mold
Spores
(n)
Emerging
amoeba
Solitary amoebas
(feeding stage)
ASEXUAL
REPRODUCTION
Fruiting
bodies
Aggregated
amoebas
Migrating
aggregate
SYNGAMY
MEIOSIS
SEXUAL
REPRODUCTION
Zygote
(2n)
Amoebas
600 m
200 m
Key
Haploid (n)
Diploid (2n) Figure 28.27
In the feeding
stage of the life
cycle, solitary haploid
amoebas engulf bacteria.
1 During sexual repro-
duction, two haploid
amoebas fuse and
form a zygote.
2
The zygote
becomes a giant
cell (not shown)
by consuming
haploid amoebas.
After developing a
resistant wall, the
giant cell undergoes
meiosis followed by
several mitotic
divisions.
3
The resistant
wall ruptures,
releasing new
haploid amoebas.
4
When food is depleted,
hundreds of amoebas
congregate in response to a
chemical attractant and form
a sluglike aggregate (photo
below left). Aggregate
formation is the beginning
of asexual reproduction.
5
The aggregate migrates for a
while and then stops. Some of the
cells dry up after forming a stalk that
supports an asexual fruiting body.
6
Other
cells crawl
up the stalk
and develop
into spores.
7
Spores
are released.
8
In a favorable
environment, amoebas
emerge from the spore
coats and begin feeding.
9
Dictyostelium discoideum
Has become an experimental model for
studying the evolution of multicellularity
Concept 28.8: Red algae and green algae are
the closest relatives of land plants
Over a billion years ago, a heterotrophic protist
acquired a cyanobacterial endosymbiont
And the photosynthetic descendants of this
ancient protist evolved into red algae and
green algae
Red Algae
Red algae are reddish in color
Due to an accessory pigment call
phycoerythrin, which masks the green of
chlorophyll
Red algae
Are usually multicellular; the largest are
seaweeds
Are the most abundant large algae in coastal
waters of the tropics
Figure 28.28ac
(a) Bonnemaisonia hamifera. This red alga
has a filamentous form.
Dulse (Palmaria palmata). This edible
species has a leafy form.
(b)
A coralline alga. The cell walls of
coralline algae are hardened by calcium
carbonate. Some coralline algae are
members of the biological communities
around coral reefs.
(c)
Green Algae
Green algae
Are named for their grass-green chloroplasts
Are divided into two main groups: chlorophytes
and charophyceans
Are closely related to land plants
Most chlorophytes
Live in fresh water, although many are marine
Other chlorophytes
Live in damp soil, as symbionts in lichens, or in
snow
Figure 28.29
Chlorophytes include
Unicellular, colonial, and multicellular forms
Volvox, a colonial freshwater chlorophyte. The colony is a hollow
ball whose wall is composed of hundreds or thousands of
biflagellated cells (see inset LM) embedded in a gelatinous
matrix. The cells are usually connected by strands of cytoplasm;
if isolated, these cells cannot reproduce. The large colonies seen
here will eventually release the small daughter colonies within
them (LM).
(a)
Caulerpa, an inter-
tidal chlorophyte.
The branched fila-
ments lack cross-walls
and thus are multi-
nucleate. In effect,
the thallus is one
huge supercell.
(b)
Ulva, or sea lettuce. This edible seaweed has a multicellular
thallus differentiated into leaflike blades and a rootlike holdfast
that anchors the alga against turbulent waves and tides.
(c)
20 m
50 m
Figure 28.30ac
Figure 28.31
Flagella
Cell wall
Nucleus
Regions
of single
chloroplast
Zoospores
ASEXUAL
REPRODUCTION
Mature cell
(n)
SYNGAMY
SEXUAL
REPRODUCTION
Zygote
(2n)
MEIOSIS
1 m
Key
Haploid (n)
Diploid (2n)

+
+

+
+
Most chlorophytes have complex life cycles
With both sexual and asexual reproductive
stages
In Chlamydomonas,
mature cells are haploid and
contain a single cup-shaped
chloroplast (see TEM at left).
1
In response to a
shortage of nutrients, drying
of the pond, or some other
stress, cells develop into gametes.
2
Gametes of opposite
mating types (designated
+ and ) pair off and
cling together. Fusion of
the gametes (syngamy)
forms a diploid zygote.
3
The zygote secretes
a durable coat that
protects the cell against
harsh conditions.
4
After a dormant period, meiosis
produces four haploid individuals (two
of each mating type) that emerge from
the coat and develop into mature cells.
5
When a mature cell repro-
duces asexually, it resorbs its
flagella and then undergoes two
rounds of mitosis, forming four
cells (more in some species).
6
These daughter cells develop flagella
and cell walls and then emerge as
swimming zoospores from the wall of
the parent cell that had enclosed them.
The zoospores grow into mature haploid
cells, completing the asexual life cycle.
7

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Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc.

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