PSY190 General Psychology

Introduction
Consciousness is the awareness of internal and
external stimuli

Function of consciousness:
 Monitoring and controlling ourselves and our
environment
Levels of Consciousness
Conscious level: The level at which mental activities
that people are normally aware of occur.
Ex: listen to radio
Nonconscious level:
Preconscious level: A level of mental activity that is not
currently conscious but of which we can easily become
conscious.
 Ex: swimming skill, language
Unconscious level: A level of mental activity that
influences consciousness but is not conscious.
 Ex: memories, impulses and desires that are unacceptable
Levels of Consciousness
Ice berg’s theory
Mental Processing Without
Awareness
Patients who was played audiotape of 15 pairs of
word in unconscious (under anesthesia)can recall
the member of the word pair.
Consciously process information without
awareness- can’t tell the rule
Blindsight- still can locate visual targets
Priming-people tend to respond faster or more
accurately to previously see stimuli.
Priming can alter behaviors when unconsciously
influenced.
 Participants who had been exposed to rude words
were most likely to interrupt conversation, if
compared to polite or neutral words.
Unconscious help us to effectively carry daily
mental abilities
The Neuropsychology of
Consciousness
Thalamus and the cerebral cortex are among the
brain structures involved in the experience of
consciousness.
Ex: thalamus of patient in vegetative state
Brain injuries can impair consciousness
Ex: anterograde amnesia- can’t form new memories
(damage to hippocampus)
But, mental processing can occur without
conscious awareness
Ex: task performance improved- can learn and
remember without conscious memory
Stages of Sleep
Study sleeping by using EEG to monitor the brain’s
electrical activity (brave wave) during sleep.
Slow-Wave Sleep.
Stages 1 through 4 are progressively deeper stages of
non-REM sleep.
The last two stages—3 and 4—are called slow-wave
sleep.
 accompanied by deep breathing; calm, regular heartbeat;
and reduced blood pressure.
It is quite difficult to be awakened in Stage 4 (deepest
stage of slow-wave sleep).
Stage 4 -> stage 2 -> REM
Stages of Sleep (con’t)
Rapid Eye Movement (REM) sleep, or active sleep, is a
paradoxical state in which brain waves and other
physiological functions resemble those of a person who
is awake, but muscle tone resembles that of paralysis.
A Night’s Sleep.
Most people travel through the five stages of slow-wave
and REM sleep four to six times each night.
REM sleep is most frequent during the second half of the
night.
The amount of time spent in stages 1 to 4 and REM sleep
varies with age.
 Ex: 50% of total sleep time at birth is REM sleep
 Sleep Disorders
Insomnia, fatigue resulting from little sleep or difficulty
falling asleep, is the most common sleep disorder and is
correlated with mental distress (anxiety).
Treatment: sleeping pills or other techniques (relaxation)
People with narcolepsy fall, without warning, into REM
sleep from an active waking state.
Sleep apnea is a disorder in which people stop breathing
momentarily while they sleep. Apnea episodes can occur
hundreds of times per night, thus leaving the victim
feeling tired during the day.
Sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) is a disorder in
which a baby stops breathing and dies.
Doctors recommend that babies sleep on their back.
Sleep Disorders (con’t)
Nightmares are frightening dreams that can occur
during REM sleep.
Imagery therapy- imagine new and less frightening
outcomes
Night terrors occur during stage 3 or 4 and are
characterized by horrific images, screaming upon
wakening, and difficulty in calming down afterward.
Sleepwalking, which is most common among children,
is walking during non-REM sleep.
REM behavior disorder, a condition similar to
sleepwalking, occurs during REM sleep.
The normal paralysis that occurs during REM sleep is
absent, and the person acts out his or her dreams.
 Why Do People Sleep?
Sleep as a Circadian Rhythm.
Humans have a built-in biological clock that is linked to light and
dark environmental cues.
 Ex: Jet lag- symptoms of fatigue and irritability.
Human circadian rhythms are “clocked” in a part of the
hypothalamus called the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN).
 SCN regulate the release of the hormone Melatonin.
The Functions of Sleep.
Sleep is necessary for resting and restoring the body.
REM sleep may help
 maintain the activity of neurons that use norepinephrine.
 for developing, checking, and expanding the brain’s nerve connections.
 solidify and absorb what has been learned during the day.
 Dreams and Dreaming
Dreams are storylike sequences of images, sensations, and
perceptions.
 Most (bizarre & vivid)dreams occur during REM sleep
 Daytime activities and experiences may influence content of dreams.
 Ex: wear red-tinted goggles before sleep-> report red images

 Lucid dreamers know when they are dreaming.

Some theories suggest that dreaming helps mammals
process and consolidate information of great personal
significance or survival value.
Psychodynamic theory suggests that dreams express
unconscious wishes.
The activation-synthesis theory suggests that dreams
represent efforts to make sense of random signals sent to
the cortex.
Dreams review and address problems
 current concern-> content of dreams
Brain areas controlling logical thought are suppressed
HYPNOSIS
Hypnosis is an altered state of consciousness brought on
by special techniques and characterized by
responsiveness to suggestions for changes in perceptions
and behavior.
Procedures for inducing hypnosis
 focus people’s attention on a restricted set of stimuli
 while asking them to ignore everything else as they imagine
certain feelings.
Hypnotically susceptible people are more imaginative,
have a tendency to fantasize, can focus their attention
for long periods, and are able to process information
quickly and effortlessly.
 Willingness to be hypnotized is the most important factor.
Posthypnotic suggestions affect behavior after hypnosis
has ended. (ex: smiling whenever someone says
“England”)
Posthypnotic amnesia, which is an inability to remember
what happened under hypnosis.
Explaining Hypnosis
State theory: a special state of consciousness
hypnotized people experience an altered state
of consciousness.

Role theory- subjects under hypnosis merely

act in accordance with the hypnotized role.
They are not in a special state; they simply
comply with the hypnotist’s directions.
Provide socially acceptable reason to follow
suggestions
 Ex: take off cloth when having medical check up
Explaining Hypnosis
(con’t)
Dissociation theory: hypnotized subjects dissociate,
or split, various aspects of their behavior and
perceptions from the “self” that normally controls
these functions.
When hypnotized, these subjects are sharing some of
this control with the hypnotist.
Evidence- hypnotized person immerses one hand in
ice water and presses button

Applications of Hypnosis
Relieve pain
Aid memory (doubtful, but positive expectation
causes confident)
PSYCHOACTIVE DRUGS
Psychoactive drugs cause psychological changes by altering
the functioning of the brain.
Psychopharmacology is the study of psychoactive drugs.
Psychoactive drugs or substances influence the interaction
between neurotransmitters and receptors.
Drugs that act as agonists mimic the effects of
neurotransmitters, whereas those acting as antagonists
prevent neurotransmitters from binding with receptors and
inhibit neurotransmitter activity.
The Varying Effects of
Drugs
Substance abuse is the self-administration of drugs in
ways that deviate from either medical or social norms.
Psychological dependence occurs when a person
continues to use the drug to gain a sense of well-being
even when the drug produces adverse consequences.
Physical dependence or addiction exists when there is
an altered physiological state in which continued use
of the drug is required to prevent the onset of
withdrawal syndrome.
Tolerance may develop with prolonged use of a drug.
Categories of Drugs
Depressants
 reduce central nervous system activity.
 increase GABA neurotransmitter activity.
 Ex: alcohol, barbiturates
Stimulants
 increase behavioral and mental activity
 Ex: Cocaine, Caffeine
Opiates
 cause sleep and pain relief.
 Ex: morphine, heroin
Hallucinogens
 cause a loss of contact with reality and induce
changes in emotion, perception, and thought.
 Ex: LSD, Marijuana