School of Healthcare

Research Approaches 2:
Quantitative research
How many versus how well

Ian Grigor
School of Healthcare
Aim
To understand the role of
quantitative research
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Objectives
To understand the principle of
research methods adopting a
quantitative approach (basically
involving experimental design)
To interpret the role of quantitative
research
To comment on the strengths and
weaknesses of quantitative research
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The generation of information
and understanding
(perhaps)
consisting of
as opposed to
unsupported
opinion
New concepts
New models
New theories
So we need
evidence
as opposed to
anecdote
Determinants are
validity
reliability
generalisability
What is research?
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Quantitative research traditions
Focus predominantly (though not
exclusively) on experimental design. A
good example might be a survey
questionnaire
Experimental design has long been
perceived as the gold standard for
medically-orientated research
Rely largely on statistical measures and
require larger samples and more
structured data collection tools (Polit et al
2001)
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Why and when do we prefer to
talk in quantitative terms?
We like to quantify things because
we have an awareness of scales
Theres an element of value
attached to a quantity
When were being professional
When its necessary to get a message
across

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What is quantitative
research?
Burns & Grove (1987)
... a formal, objective, systematic
process in which numerical data are
utilized to obtain information about
the world" and "a research method
which is used to describe and test
relationships and to examine cause-
and-effect relationships".
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Elements of quantitative
research
Tests and experiments under
controlled conditions
Cause and effect relationships
(Alderson 1998)
Gathering numerical data objectively
Results lend themselves to statistical
analyses
Evaluation of results confirm or
refute the original hypothesis


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Elements of quantitative research can be
described as positivist paradigms
Quantitative data
Statistical analysis within definitive
concepts (logical mathematics)
Atomistic (focusing on component parts)
Studying discrete relationships
Being of low complexity???
Potentially seeking to explain laws
Requiring control subjects/sets
Ultimately, we should understand what we
dont know at present!!


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Samples for study
Your sample is the group of cases (people,
organisations, etc.) that you study in your
research
It should be either comprehensive i.e.
everyone or a selection that is truly
randomised, inclusive and controlled
It should not be a limited study of 12 (cf
Wakefield et al 1994: 1998: 2001) unless
that is all that is in the population under
scrutiny

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In relation to our ongoing
MMR theme
Studies by Gillberg & Heijbel (1998); Honda (2005);
Peltola et al (1998); Taylor et al (1999)
quantified the number of doses of MMR given
over a period of time in a specific country or area
and also quantified the number of cases of
autism diagnosed in the population given the
MMR vaccine. Then, using statistical testing to
determine whether there was any evidence of an
association between these variables (MMR and
autism), they tried to ascertain the strength of the
association: this is quantitative research
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Using Wakefields work on the
MMR debate as our metaphor
The information and understanding
generated was highly questionable
His opinions have been heavily criticised
His claims were based on a study of 12
children
A Scandinavian study of 300,000 came to
the opposite conclusion
Any comments about
generalisability?


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Validity of data generation
Do your data relate to the concepts you
think they do?
What steps were taken to tackle these
issues? Convince the reader that youve
thought about this and confront the issue
Are your data appropriate?
Is the combination of methodology and the
cases under study able to generate the data
required for the study?
Could there be extrinsic factors influencing
your results?
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Validity
Are hidden factors at play?
You think youre looking at the effects of
X but other factors youre unaware of
are really what are affecting the situation
Your explanation applies to much of
your data even though you sought
negative instances/ alternatives

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Reliability
Could another researcher repeat this
work, using the same data, and end
with the same result?
Have you consistently used
standardised protocols and
techniques?
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Generalisability
Could your findings be
applied to the wider
population?
If not, why not?
Can we make predictions
from our study sample to the
general?
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Strengths of quantitative
research
You can manipulate your numbers to
create visual images e.g. graphs
Concepts can be measured and directly
compared to previous/subsequent work
There may be direct correlation between
cause and effect this is the ideal
It may be possible to generalise towards
external validity i.e. predict
Breadth of coverage of big population

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Weaknesses of quantitative
research
The whole may not be equal to the
sum of the parts
Lack of depth i.e. looking at just one
part of the whole
Defining everything, in terms of
numbers, is risky when dealing with
humans especially
Ultimately, everything is qualitative!
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The final evidence on the MMR
controversy
The evidence is that MMR is not associated
with autism in childrenthe quality,
validity and size of that evidence is
overwhelmingautism rates began to rise
before MMR
Anon (2005) MMR vaccination and autism
Available at www.ebandolier.com
The worldwide studies on this topic have
covered some 2 million people

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References
Alderson P (1998) The importance of
theories in health care British Medical
J ournal 317, 1007-10
Hek G, Judd M and Moule P (2002)
Making sense of research: an
introduction for health and social
care practitioners (2
nd
edition)
London: Continuum
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Objectives
To understand the principle of
research methods adopting a
quantitative approach
To interpret the role of quantitative
research
To comment on the strengths and
weaknesses of quantitative research