An Introduction to Fluid Mechanics

and Pressure Drop Calculations

Fluids At Rest Theory
The force and hydrostatic pressure at a particular depth is the
same in all directions;

Force and pressure at equal depths is always the same
regardless of volume or shape;

Hydrostatic pressure always acts at right angles to the
containing surface.

In any fluid, a force is exerted on a submerged area A at depth
h by the column of fluid above it. The pressure (Pa) exerted by
this fluid is perpendicular to the area A and is given by: -
P = gh


Fluids At Rest Theory
- The pressures at points P&Q are the same
- The pressures at points R&S are the same

What is the difference in pressure between
P and R if h= 2 metres and the tank is filled
with water?
Fluids At Rest Theory
Absolute pressure is referenced to a vacuum
Gauge pressure is referenced to atmospheric
pressure
Pressure gauges generally measure gauge
pressure
For modeling purposes absolute pressures are
normally used
1 atmosphere= 101.3 kPa



FLUID DYNAMICS
THE BERNOULLI EQUATION
The laws of Statics that we have learned cannot solve
Dynamic Problems. There is no way to solve for the flow
rate, or Q. Therefore, we need a new dynamic approach
to Fluid Mechanics.
The Bernoulli Equation
By assuming that fluid motion is governed only by pressure and
gravity forces, applying Newtons second law, F = ma, leads us to
the Bernoulli Equation.
P/ + V
2
/2g + z = constant along a streamline
(P=pressure =specific weight V=velocity g=gravity z=elevation)

A streamline is the path of one particle of water. Therefore, at any two
points along a streamline, the Bernoulli equation can be applied and,
using a set of engineering assumptions, unknown flows and pressures
can easily be solved for.


Bernoulli Example Problem: Free Jets
What is the Flow Rate at point 2? What is the velocity at point 3?
Givens and Assumptions:
Because the tank is so large, we assume V
1
= 0 (Vol
out
<<< Vol
tank
)
The tank is open at both ends, thus P
1
= P
2
= P
3
= atm


P
1
and P
2
and P
3
= 0
Part 1:
Apply Bernoullis eqn between points 1 and 2
P
1
/
H2O
+ V
1
2
/2g + h = P
2
/
H20
+ V
2
2
/2g + 0
simplifies to
h = V
2
2
/2g solving for V
V = (2gh)
Q = VA or Q = A
2
(2gh)

1
2
3
Z = 0
A
2

Bernoulli Example Problem: Free Jets
1
2
3
Z = 0
A
2

Part 2: Find V
3
?
Apply Bernoullis eq from pt 1 to pt 3
P
1
/
H2O
+ V
1
2
/2g + h = P
3
/
H20
+ V
3
2
/2g H
Simplify to h + H = V
3
2
/2g
Solving for V V
3
= ( 2g ( h + H ))

Free Jets
The velocity of a jet of water is clearly related to the depth of water
above the hole. The greater the depth, the higher the velocity. Similar
behavior can be seen as water flows at a very high velocity from the
reservoir behind a large dam such as Hoover Dam
The Energy Line and the Hydraulic Grade Line
Looking at the Bernoulli equation again:
P/ + V
2
/2g + z = constant on a streamline
This constant is called the total head (energy), H
Because energy is assumed to be conserved, at any point along
the streamline, the total head is always constant
Each term in the Bernoulli equation is a type of head.
P/ = Pressure Head
V
2
/2g = Velocity Head
Z = elevation head
These three heads summed equals H = total energy

Next we will look at this graphically
The Energy Line and the Hydraulic Grade Line
Measures the
static pressure
Pitot measures
the total head
1: Static Pressure Tap
Measures the sum of the
elevation head and the
pressure Head.
2: Pitot Tube
Measures the Total Head
EL : Energy Line
Total Head along a system
HGL : Hydraulic Grade line
Sum of the elevation and
the pressure heads along a
system
Q
1
Z
P/
V
2
/2g
HGL
2
EL
Pipe Flow
Recap: the complete conservation of energy equation is,
CONSERVATION OF ENERGY
Notes:
1. This applies to a steady state scenario with one inlet and one exit.
2. All terms have units of length and are called heads.
3. H
loss
is a term describing energy losses and must usually be
supplied by an empirical formula.
4. This is not Bernoullis equation it has been derived from
completely different principals but Bernoulli can be reduced to
this equation
5. The power associated with an energy head is given by,

loss turbine out
out
2
out
pumps in
in
2
in
H H z
g
p
2g
v
H z
g
p
2g
v
+ + + + = + + +
gQH gH m Power = =

So the complete conservation of energy equation is,
ENERGY LOSSES
The energy loss term, H
loss
can basically come from two sources
which we call:
(a) Major losses - - losses due to pipe friction, i.e. the
roughness of the pipes. This is usually
the largest energy loss in a pipeline
system.
(b) Minor losses - - energy lost at local points on the pipe
system such as pipe bends, pipe
connections, valves, etc.
loss turbine out pumps in
H H H + + = + H H
out
out
2
out
out in
in
2
in
in
z
g
p
2g
v
H z
g
p
2g
v
H + + = + + = ;
The form of the major loss term is given by the Darcy-Weisbach equation
MAJOR LOSS
v is the pipe flow velocity (=Q/A)
f is called the Darcy-Weisbach friction factor and is usually
calculated from an empirical formula.
L is the length of the pipe
D is the pipe diameter
A is the pipe area of flow = (t/4)D
2
g
L v
D
f
H
f
2
2
=
2
2
2
2
kQ
gA
LQ
D
f
H
f
= =
g
v
D
fL 2
H
2
f
=
g
v
D
f 2
L
H
2
f
=
Datum
z

p
g
v
2
2
f
H
in
in in
in
z
p
g
v
H + + =
2
2
out
out out
out
z
p
g
v
H + + =
2
2
L
H H
L
H
out in f

=
g
v
D
fL
H
f
2
2
=
g
v
D
f
L
H
f
2
2
=
Datum
z

p
g
v
2
2
f
H
in
in
PZ
z
p
H
i n
+ =

out
out
PZ
z
p
H
out
+ =

L
H H
L
H
PZ PZ
f
out in

=
If pipe is of constant diameter
Piezometric gradient
MINOR LOSS

Unlike major losses, minor losses do not occur over the length of the
pipe, but only at points of momentum loss. Since Minor losses occur at
unique points along a pipe, to find the total minor loss throughout a
pipe, sum all of the minor losses along the pipe. Each type of bend, or
narrowing has a loss coefficient, K
L
to go with it.
The form of the minor loss term varies according to the type of structure
causing the loss (e.g. valve, pipe bend etc.) but it usually takes a form like,
MINOR LOSS
Tables are available that show values for K
loss
depending on the type of
structure.

g
v
K H
Loss or
2
2
min
=
MINOR LOSS
MINOR LOSS
MINOR LOSS
Osborne Reynolds (1842-1912): observed that the flow characteristics of fluids
in pipes varied with the flow velocity.

At low velocities a dye injected at the pipe center flowed in a thin straight line.
Reynolds observed that the water flowed in thin laminae (sheets).
PIPE FLOW CHARACTERISTICS
This is termed as laminar flow.
As Reynolds increased the flow velocity the flow characteristics changed.

At higher velocities the dye began to wobble and oscillate.
PIPE FLOW CHARACTERISTICS
This was termed transition flow.
Finally as the pipe flow velocity was increased beyond a critical value the dyes
structure completely broke down.

This is called turbulent flow.
PIPE FLOW CHARACTERISTICS
In this state the velocity is fluctuating and randomly moving in small
varied sized vortices.
The structure of turbulence is extremely complex (some people have argued it
is chaotic).
TURBULENT FLOW CHARACTERISTICS
However this fluctuating, erratic velocity pattern may be thought of
as being superimposed upon a mean velocity field. So if we plotted
the instantaneous velocity at A versus time:
A
Time
Velocity
v
average
Reynolds demonstrated that the type of flow that occurred depended on the
interrelationship between four flow parameters:
1. Average flow velocity (V)
2. Fluid density ()
3. Pipe diameter (D)
4. Fluid viscosity ( )

In fact he showed that the following non-dimensional number was very crucial; it
was thereafter known as the Reynolds Number,

PIPE FLOW CHARACTERISTICS
v
VD
R ely alternativ
VD
R
e e
= =
where

v
is called the kinematic viscosity and is equal to

LAMINAR OR TURBULENT FLOW

2000 R
e
<
Laminar flow
4000 R 2000
e
< <
4000 R
e
>
Transitional flow
Turbulent flow

Notes: (1) laminar flow rarely occurs in the oil industry, except by design.
Examples include pipelines operating below design capacity, in small
scale lab experiments and very close to solid boundaries; (2) these
numbers are guidelines only; (3) usually we would choose a design to be
fully turbulent or fully laminar since then we can analyze it.
Laminar flow is amenable to mathematical analysis by assuming that the
instantaneous shear stress within the fluid can be related to the velocity
gradient (or mean strain rate) by the Newtonian relationship,
FRICTION FACTOR FOR PIPE FLOW
By employing this relationship we can show that
dy
dv
= t
e
f
R
16
f =
Turbulent flow cannot be analyzed theoretically and so we must take recourse
to experimentally derived correlation equations.
FRICTION FACTOR FOR PIPE FLOW
Blasius (~1913) was an early researcher on pipe friction. He
showed that for smooth pipes (glass).
0.25
e
R
0.079
f =
We will define what we mean by smooth shortly.

Aside: For pipe calculations f is usually O(10
-2
) i.e. 0.01.
FRICTION FACTOR FOR PIPE FLOW
Nikuradse (~1930) took smooth pipes (glass) and artificially
roughed them by sticking small sand grains of size (k
s
) onto the
pipe wall. He performed a series of tests with pipes roughened by
the addition of different sized particles.
He found that if k
s
was very small then the following friction factor
equation worked. He called these pipes smooth pipes.
(

=
2.51
f R
2log
f
1
e
This is an implicit equation and must be solved by iteration (trial an
error).
FRICTION FACTOR FOR PIPE FLOW
Nikuradse found that if k
s
was very large then the following friction
factor equation worked. He called these rough pipes.
(

=
s
k
3.7D
2log
f
1
Note that there is no dependence on Reynolds number and this is
an explicit equation for f.
ROUGH OR SMOOTH PIPES?
In fact when flow occurs in a pipe, even it it is turbulent flow, there
is a very small region close to the pipe wall where turbulent
fluctuations are damped out and laminar flow prevails.
This is called the laminar sub-layer. If the pipe roughness elements
are contained within this layer then their effect is not felt by the
gross flow field and hence the pipe flow thinks it is a smooth pipe.
If the roughness elements protrude through the sub-layer into the
flow field then they affect the gross flow as a roughness.
Smooth Rough
COLEBROOK AND WHITE (1937)
These researchers conducted experiments on commercially
available steel pipes. They found that the following equation
described the friction factor and covered all types of pipes (rough
smooth and intermediate).
(

c
+ =
3.7D f R
1.256
-4log
f
1
e
Notes: (1) This is really just a generalization of Nikuradses results
into a equation for all pipe roughness; (2) for large Re the first term
in brackets may tend to zero; (3) for small k
s
the second term
vanishes; (4) in general this equation is implicit.
PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS FOR THE IMPLICIT EQUATION
The Colebrook-White relationship is used extensively in pipe
friction calculations and design.
(

c
+ =
3.7D f R
1.256
-4log
f
1
e
But the fact that it is an implicit equation has led researchers to
suggest easier ways to solve it (at least in pre-computer times).


MOODY DIAGRAM
Moody plotted f versus Re for values of k
s
/D to produce the Moody diagram. We use Moodys
diagram as an alterative to solving the Colebrook and White equation.

CALCULATING FRICTION PRESSURE LOSS

PROCEDURE
1. Calculate Renolds Number

2. Determine Flow Regime

3. Determine friction factor

4. Calculate pressure drop

CALCULATING FRICTION PRESSURE LOSS

EXAMPLE 1
Given Data

Oil properties: Density 847 kg/m3, Viscosity 34.3 cP, flow velecity 2 m/s

Pipeline properties: 510 mm ID, 20 km long, roughness 0.4 mm




CALCULATING FRICTION PRESSURE LOSS

EXAMPLE 1
1. Calculate Reynolds Number

Reynolds number = diameter * velocity * density / viscosity

= 0.51 * 2 * 847 / 0.0343

= 25188





CALCULATING FRICTION PRESSURE LOSS

EXAMPLE 1
2. Determine Flow Regime

Reynolds number = 25188

Relative roughness = 0.4 / 510
= 0.0008

Therefore, from Moody diagram flow regime is transitional




CALCULATING FRICTION PRESSURE LOSS

EXAMPLE 1
3. Determine Friction Factor

From Moody diagram, friction factor is:

Moody Friction Factor (f
m
) = 0.0270






CALCULATING FRICTION PRESSURE LOSS

EXAMPLE 1
4. Calculate Pressure Drop

Pressure Drop (kPa) = 0.5 * density * f
m
* length * velocity
2
/

diamter

Pressure Drop (kPa) = 0.5 * 847 * 0.0270 * 20000 * 2
2
/ 510

Pressure Drop (kPa) = 1794








CALCULATING FRICTION PRESSURE LOSS

EXAMPLE 2
Given Data

Oil properties: Density 847 kg/m3, Viscosity 34.3 cP, flow velecity 0.1
m/s

Pipeline properties: 510 mm ID, 20 km long, roughness 0.4 mm




CALCULATING FRICTION PRESSURE LOSS

EXAMPLE 1
1. Calculate Reynolds Number

Reynolds number = diameter * velocity * density / viscosity

= 0.51 * 0.1 * 847 / 0.0343

= 1259





CALCULATING FRICTION PRESSURE LOSS

EXAMPLE 1
2. Determine Flow Regime

Reynolds number = 1259

Relative roughness = 0.4 / 510

= 0.0008

Therefore, from Moody diagram flow regime is laminar




CALCULATING FRICTION PRESSURE LOSS

EXAMPLE 1
3. Determine Friction Factor

From Moody diagram, friction factor is:

f
m
= 64 / Re

= 64 / 1259

= 0. 0508






CALCULATING FRICTION PRESSURE LOSS

EXAMPLE 1
4. Calculate Pressure Drop

Pressure Drop (kPa) = 32000 * viscosity * length * velocity

/

diamter
2

Pressure Drop (kPa) = 32000 * 0.0343 * 20000 * 0.1

/ 510
2

Pressure Drop (kPa) = 8.43








CALCULATING FRICTION PRESSURE LOSS

HYSYS CALCULATION
Pressure Drop (kPa) vs Flow Rate (m3/h)
-1000
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
7000
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500
Flow Rate (m3/h)
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

D
r
o
p

(
k
P
a
)
HYSYS Calc Moody Diagram