By

Poornashri Kandade
Anushri Kulkarni
Poonam Banerjee
Rimsha Khan
Sayli Khadilkar
Samrudhi Bhaktha
Batul Kanchwala
Sanika Mayekar
Ruchika Madhar
Sushmita Maity

Table Of contents
Stone & Rock
Qualities
Layers of the Earth
Classification of rocks
-Chemical
-Physical
-Geological
Igneous
Sedimentary
Metamorphic
Placements


STONE is a natural, hard substance
formed from minerals and Earth material
which are present in rocks.



ROCK is the portion of the Earths crust
having no definite shape and structure.
To qualify as a construction material, stone
should have the following qualities:
Strength: Most types of stones have more than
adequate compressive strength. The shear strength of
stone, however, is usually about 1/ 10 of its compressive
strength.
Hardness: It is important when stone is used for flooring,
paving and stair treads.
Durability: Resistance to the weathering effects of rain,
wind, heat and frost action is necessary for exterior
stonework.
Workability: A stones hardness and grain texture must
allow it to be quarried, cut and shaped.
To qualify as a construction material, stone
should have the following qualities:
Density: A stones porosity affects its ability to withstand
frost action and staining.
Appearance: This includes colour, grain and texture.
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Physical
Stratified
Unstratified
Foliated
Chemical
Siliceous
Argillaceous
Calcareous
Geological
Igneous
Sedimentary
Metamorphic
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Stratified
These rocks posses
planes of
stratification or
cleavage. They can
be easily split along
these planes.
Unstratified
The structure of
these rocks may be
crystalline granular
or compact
granular.
Foliated
These rocks have a
tendency to be split
in a definite
direction only.
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Siliceous
Silica
predominates
Hard & durable
E.g.: Granite,
Quartzite, etc.
Argillaceous
Clay
predominates
Dense, compact &
soft
E.g.: Slate,
Laterite, etc.
Calcareous
Calcium
carbonate
predominates
Durability
depends upon
surrounding
atmosphere
E.g.: Limestone,
Marble, etc.
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IGNEOUS
SEDIMENTARY
METAMORPHIC
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The Rock Cycle
They are formed by cooling and crystallization of
magma (below the Earths surface) or lava (above the
Earths surface).

Types
oIntrusive/ Plutonic rocks form below the ground surface from
magma coming up from the mantle into the crust, where they
slowly cool.
oExtrusive/ Volcanic rocks arrive at the ground surface in a
molten state, such as through volcanic eruption. They cool rapidly.

oHypabyssal rocks are formed when consolidation of the
magma takes place very close to the earths surface in
the form of smaller sheet like bodies (known as sills &
dikes) that fill cracks inside other rocks.



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HYPABYSSAL ROCK

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GRANITE
Granite is a common type of intrusive, felsic, igneous
rock which is granular and phaneritic in texture.
Consists mainly of quartz, mica and feldspar.
Large grained crystals.
Hard, strong and capable of taking high pressure polish.
Currently known only on Earth, where it forms a major
part of continental crust.
The word "granite" comes from the Latin granum, a
grain, in reference to the coarse-grained structure of such
a crystalline rock.
Color- Can be pink, red, yellow, green, blue, white,
brown, gray, depending on their chemistry and
mineralogy.

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GRANITE
With increasing amounts of acid rain in parts of the
world, granite has begun to supplant marble as a
monument material, since it is much more durable.
Has been extensively used as a dimension stone and as
flooring tiles in public and commercial buildings and
monuments, wall paneling, columns, mullion facing, stair
treads and flagstones.
Polished granite is also a popular choice for kitchen
countertops due to its high durability and aesthetic
qualities.
Granite rock climbing is so popular that many of the
artificial rock climbing walls found in gyms and theme
parks are made to look and feel like granite.


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World's First temple built entirely of granite by the Emperor Raja
Raja Chozha I, 10th century A.D.; Tanjore, India.

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Life-size elephant and other creatures carved in granite, 7-9th
century A.D.; Mahabalipuram, India.

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SERPENTINITE
Serpentinite is composed of minerals of the serpentine
group.
It forms by regional metamorphism of deep-sea rocks
from the oceanic mantle.
Most people call it serpentine (SER-penteen) or
serpentine rock, but serpentine is the set of minerals that
make up serpentinite (ser-PENT-inite).
It gets its name from its resemblance to snakeskin, with a
mottled color, waxy or resinous luster and curving,
polished surfaces.
Serpentinite can contain chrysotile, the serpentine
mineral that crystallizes in long, thin fibers. This is the
mineral commonly known as asbestos.


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SERPENTINITE
Decorative stone in architecture
Grades of serpentinite higher in calcite, along with
the breccia form of serpentinite, have historically been
used as decorative stones for their marble-like qualities.
Mainly used only for interiors due to weathering.
Typically olive green to to greenish black but impurities
may colur the rock.



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SERPENTINITE

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Other examples:


Diorite
Gabbro
Andesite
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BASALT
Basalt is a common extrusive igneous (volcanic) rock
formed from the rapid cooling of basaltic lava exposed at
or very near the surface of a planet or moon.
Color- Usually grey to black, but rapidly weathers to
brown or rust-red due to oxidation of its mafic (iron-rich)
minerals into rust.
Fine grained crystals.
The largest occurrences of basalt are in the ocean
floor that is almost completely made up by basalt.
. Above sea level basalt is common in hotspot islands and
around volcanic arcs, specially those on thin crust.
The largest volumes of basalt on land correspond
to continental flood basalts existing in the Deccan
Traps in India.
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BASALT
Types
Tholeiitic basalt is relatively rich in silica and poor
in sodium. Included in this category are most basalts of
the ocean floor, most large oceanic islands, and
continental flood basalts such as the Columbia River
Plateau.
High alumina basalt may be silica-under saturated or -
oversaturated. It has greater than 17% alumina (Al
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and is intermediate in composition between tholeiite and
alkali basalt.
Alkali basalt is relatively poor in silica and rich in sodium.
It is silica-under saturated and may
contain feldspathoids, alkali feldspar and phlogopite.
Boninite is a high-magnesium form of basalt that is
erupted generally in back-arc basins, distinguished by its
low titanium content and trace element composition.

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BASALT
It is most commonly crushed for use as an aggregate in
construction projects.
Crushed basalt is used for road base, concrete aggregate,
asphalt pavement aggregate, railroad ballast, filter stone
in drain fields and may other purposes.
Basalt is also cut into dimension stone.
Thin slabs of basalt are cut and sometimes polished for
use as floor tiles, building veneer, monuments and other
stone objects.

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Continental flood basalt in Deccan plateau.

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Other examples:
Scoria
Rhyolite
Obsidian
Rocks produced by the settling/
deposition, compaction and cementation
of sediments.
Types
oClastic (Physical weathering)
oChemical
oOrganic




Sedimentary rock formation
CLASTIC
Clastic Sedimentary rocks are formed from mechanical
weathering of debris.
Mechanical weathering takes place when rocks are
broken down without any change in the chemical nature
of the rocks.
Examples: Breccia, Conglomerate, Sandstone, Shale, etc.
SANDSTONE
Sandstone (sometimes known as arenite) is a clastic
sedimentary rock composed mainly of sand-sized
minerals or rock grains.
Like sand, sandstone may be any colour, but the most
common colours are tan, brown, yellow, red, gray, pink,
white and black.
It is relatively soft, making it easy to carve.
It is porous.
Used around the world in constructing temples,
cathedrals, homes, and other buildings. It has also been
used for artistic purposes to create ornamental fountains
and statues.


SANDSTONE
Types
Arenites are texturally "clean" sandstones
that are free of or have very little matrix.
Wackes are texturally "dirty" sandstones
that have a significant amount of matrix.
*Matrix is very fine material, which is
present within interstitial pore space
between the framework grains.


SANDSTONE


SHALE
Shale is a fine-grained rock composed
of mud that is a mix of flakes of clay minerals and
tiny fragments (silt-sized particles) of other
minerals, especially quartz and calcite.
It is characterized by breaks along thin laminae
or parallel layering or bedding less than one
centimetre in thickness, called fissility.
Its typical colour is gray. Red, brown and green
colours are indicative of ferric oxide (hematite
reds), iron hydroxide (goethite browns
and limonite yellow), or micaceous minerals
(chlorite, biotite and illite greens).
SHALE
The process in the rock cycle which forms shale
is called compaction. The fine particles that
compose shale can remain suspended in water
long after the larger and denser particles of sand
have deposited. Shales are typically deposited in
very slow moving water and are often found in
lakes and lagoonal deposits, in river deltas,
on floodplains and offshore from beach sands.
They can also be deposited on the continental
shelf, in relatively deep, quiet water.
SHALE
CONGLOMERATE
A conglomerate is a rock consisting of
individual clasts within a finer-grained matrix that
have become cemented together.
Types
Paraconglomerates consist of a matrix-supported
rock that contains at least 15% sand-sized or
smaller grains(<2 mm), the rest being larger
grains of varying sizes.
Orthoconglomerates consist of a clast-supported
rock with less than 15% matrix of sand and finer
particles.
CONGLOMERATE
Conglomerates are deposited in a variety
of sedimentary environments.
Deepwater Marine
Shallow Marine
Fluvial
Alluvial
Glacial
Conglomerate rock is used as a decoration.
Usually, it is a kind of ornamental stone as
it has various pieces of the different other
rocks glued together.


CONGLOMERATE

CHEMICAL
Chemical Sedimentary rocks form when dissolved
materials precipitate from solution.
Examples: Halite and Limestone
LIMESTONE
Limestone is a sedimentary rock composed
largely of the minerals calcite and aragonite,
which are different crystal forms of calcium
carbonate (CaCO
3
).
Physically, it is impervious, hard, compact, fine to
very fine grained calcareous rock.
Natural limestone from India are generally used
as tiles, slabs in flooring, wall cladding, vanity
tops and to pave the floors of large commercial
complexes, hospitals, airports, shopping malls,
railway stations, parks etc.

LIMESTONE
The presence of other minerals gives rise to the
division of the limestones into five Classes,
each of which is designated by the name of the
predominating mineral.
When clay is present, the stone is called argillace
ous limestone.
When silica predominates, siliceous limestone.
When iron is prevalent, ferruginous limestone.
When magnesia is present to the extent of 15 p
er cent, magnesium limestone.
When the carbonate of lime and the carbonate
of magnesia are combined in equal proportions,
Dolomite limestone.
LIMESTONE
Varieties:
Flaggy Limestone
-Kota
-Yellow Limestone
Black Limestone
Travertine

LIMESTONE
KOTA
Kota Stone is a fine-grained variety of limestone,
quarried at Kota district, Rajasthan, India. Many
hundreds of mines are located in or near the
town of Ramganj mandi and Kota district.
The rich greenish-blue and brown colours of this
stone are most popular. Other colorsblack, pink,
grey, beige.
. It is mainly used for exteriors, pathways,
corridors, driveways, balconies, commercial
buildings etc.
It is also suitable for use in chemical industries as
flooring, wall fixing and lining.



LIMESTONE
KOTA
Polishing brings a shine and smoothness to the
surface of stone after cutting into pieces of
different sizes and thickness.
The stone does not flake and is preferred
flooring for both indoor and outdoor floors.
It competes in the market for its lower cost and
longer durability.
Since it is limestone it is not resistant to acid and
alkali.
It is tough, non- water absorbent, non- slip, non-
porous.




LIMESTONE
KOTA




LIMESTONE
KOTA




LIMESTONE
Yellow Limestone
Yellow Limestone which is known for its great
strength as it does not soar upon exposing it
to water.
Found extensively on Jaisalmer, India.
Being oil-resistant and non-slippery, it can be
used in flooring, pavement of floors of large
commercial complexes, wall cladding,
fireplace mantels, shopping malls, hospitals,
airports and all other applications depending
upon the user's requirements.




LIMESTONE
Yellow Limestone




LIMESTONE
Cuddapah Black
Cuddapah Black Limestone which is
immensely used for flooring, roofing, wall-
cladding and various other indoor and
outdoor construction applications.
It is sourced from Cuddapah, a district in
Andhra Pradesh.


LIMESTONE
Cuddapah Black


LIMESTONE
Travertine
Travertine is a form of limestone deposit,
terrestrial sedimentary rock, formed by
the precipitation of carbonate minerals from solution
in ground and surface waters, and/or geothermally
heated hot-springs.
Travertine often has a fibrous
or concentric appearance.
It exists in white, tan and cream-colored varieties.
The Romans mined deposits of travertine for
building temples, aqueducts, monuments, bath
complexes, and amphitheaters such as
the Colosseum, the largest building in the world
constructed mostly of travertine.

LIMESTONE
Travertine
One of several natural stones that are used for
paving patios and garden paths.
The stone is characterised by pitted holes and
troughs in its surface.
In modern architecture, it is commonly used for
faades, wall cladding and flooring.
The lobby walls of the modernist Willis
Tower (1970) (formerly Sears Tower) in
Chicago are made of travertine.
The relative softness of the stone, combined
with its holes and troughs, make travertine
flooring difficult to finish and maintain.
LIMESTONE
Travertine

ORGANIC
Organic Sedimentary rocks form from the dead plants
and animals and their debris.
Examples: Coal and Fossiliferous limestone

Fossiliferous Limestone
The most distinctive type can be given the
generalized name fossiliferous limestone, which
is composed of abundant whole & fragmented
fossil shells and skeletons.

Metamorphic rocks are formed by the effect of heat,
pressure and chemical process on existing rocks.
Exposure to extreme conditions alters the minerals,
texture and chemical composition of the rocks.
They can form from igneous, sedimentary or other
metamorphic rocks.
Earthquakes and volcanic activity cause heat and
pressure to act on rocks.
Sometime, temperature and pressure are great enough
to melt rock forming magma.
Sometimes, pressure flattens mineral grains in rocks
without melting them.
As pressure and temperature continue to increase over
time, one type of rock can change into several different
metamorphic rocks.
Types
oNon- foliated- Minerals grain grow and rearrange but do
not form layers.
Examples:
Original Rock: Limestone (Sedimentary)
Metamorphic Rock: Marble
Original Rock: Sandstone (Sedimentary)
Metamorphic Rock: Quartzite (Melted sand)

oFoliated- Mineral grains flatten and line up in parallel
layers or bands.
Examples:
Original Rock: Shale (Sedimentary)
Metamorphic Rock: Slate
Original Rock: Granite (Igneous)
Metamorphic Rock: Gneiss


GNEISS
Gneiss is a common and widely distributed type
of rock formed by high-grade regional
metamorphic processes from pre-existing
formations that were originally either igneous or
sedimentary rocks.
It is foliated (composed of layers of sheet-like
planar structures). The foliations are
characterized by alternating darker and lighter
colored bands, called gneissic banding.
It is often used as structural material and as
concrete aggregate.



GNEISS
Types
Orthogneiss designates a gneiss derived from an
igneous rock.
Paragneiss is one from a sedimentary rock.
Gneissose is used to describe rocks with
properties similar to gneiss.





GNEISS






QUARTZITE
Quartzite is a rock composed of firmly cemented
quartz grains.
It results from recrystallization of pure quartz
sandstone by metamorphosis (so called
metaquartzites).
Mostly light coloured: white, sometimes light
gray, yellowish, light brown. There also exist
coloured varieties by included minerals: blue,
green, purple, or black.
Most quartzites are metamorphic, but there also
exists sedimentary quartzite, resulting from
cementation of quartz sand by silica-rich
groundwater solutions (so called
orthoquartzites).


QUARTZITE
Orthoquartzite: mostly very pure quartz (99%)
composed of well rounded quartz grains. Original
texture and sedimentary structures are usually
preserved.
Grain Size- Medium to coarse grained, often with
isolated quartz pebbles.
Texture- Massive, sometimes banded/foliated.
Minerals- Quartz, small amounts of iron oxides, rutile,
mica, carbonates, chlorite, tourmaline needles.
Occurences- USA, UK, Canada (Ontario).
While sandstone fractures between the sand grains,
quartzite fractures across its constituent grains of sand.
Quartzites are resistant against weathering and
therefore often form hills or mountains.
Since quartzites can occur as large masses it was and is
still used as building stone.




QUARTZITE





MARBLE
Primarily marble belonged to sedimentary rocks
(limestone and dolomites), which during the long
history of the earth, as a result of high temperatures
and pressure underwent metamorphosis and
cracking.
In marble it is possible to find the same fossils as in
limestone.
Marble is known for its light colour with colourful
inter-layers. Marble can also be red.
Application:
Marble plates are used in building for interior
finishing and rarely for outside facades. Aggregate is
used for terrazzo. In garden architecture large rocks
look good when properly exposed. Thanks to the light
colour it contrasts strongly with the greens in the
garden.


MARBLE


SLATE
Slates are dense and fine grained rock.
The color of slates are generally gray, red, brown
and green ranging from dark to light.
It is produced by the compression of clays, shale,
and various other rocks developing a
characteristic cleavage consisting sericite and
quartz with biotite, chlorite, and hematite as
principal accessories.
In other words slates are generally formed by
low-grade regional metamorphism of pelithic
sediments or fine-grained tuffs.
It can be associated with other metamorphic
sedimentary or volcanic rocks.

SLATE
oSlates are argillaceous origin of metamorphic rocks and
can also be defined as a layered stone.
oFossils may be sometimes preserved in slate but are
invariably distorted.
oFolds are often apparent in the field.
oToo fine-grained are tough to distinguished with the
naked eye.
oModerately hard & compact, less homogeneous with
varying textures & shades.
oIt has an ability to split into thin layers along the plane of
cleavages due to flattened & elongated minerals along the
plane of cleavage.

SLATE
Uses of Slate
Paving
Stepping stone in garden
Combined with other materials gives quality and
attractiveness.
Square blocks for a break band in section of granite
paving.
Decorative clocks and thermometers.
Picture frame, mirrors, coasters, trivets, switch plates,
candle holders.
Engraved and painted in jewellery like earrings and pins.

SLATE
oSlate reserves in India are found
in Rajasthan, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh
and Madhya Pradesh. Deposits in Rajasthan are spread
over various districts.

SCHIST
Schist has a more crystalline structure than slate
and the crystals are easily seen.
It is composed chiefly of minerals that cleave readily,
such as hornblende, mica, etc., mixed with a variable
amount of granular quartz and feldspar.
The presence of the cleavage minerals produces a fin
e cleavage or foliation, called schistosity.
Schist is sometimes used in building construction but
it disintegrates very rapidly and is not durable.
It should always be set with the planes of schistosity
horizontal.

SCHIST
Famous Vijayanagara era temples in Karnataka.
Early 14th century Shiva temples on Hemakuta hill built during
the rule of Harihara Raya I incorporates the stepped Kadamba
style nagara sikhara (superstructure).
The mid-14th century Vidyashankara temple at Sringeri, one of
the earliest temples built by the kings of the empire.
Typical shrine at Hazare Rama temple in Hampi.
A typical Vijayanagara style pillared maha mantapa (main hall)
at Someshvara temple at Kolar.
Pillared open mantapa incorporating Hoysala style "staggered
square" layout at Vittala temple in Hampi.
Typical large open pillared hall at Ananthasayana temple in
Ananthasayanagudi, Bellary district, Karnataka.
Kudure gombe (horse doll) pillars in a mantapa at Hampi.
An open mantapa with yali columns at the Vittala temple in
Hampi.


SCHIST


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Rubble consists of rough fragments of broken
stone that have at least one good face for
exposure in a wall.
Dimension stone is quarried and squared
stone 2 or more in length and width and of
specified thickness, used commonly for wall
panels, cornices, copings, lintels and flooring.
Flagstone refers to flat stone slabs used for
flooring and horizontal surfacing.
Crushed stone is used as aggregate in
concrete products.
In the case of the walls the position of the
stone blocks should be same in which
they were originally deposited .
This position gives maximum
strength to the stone work in the walls .

In the case of arches , the bedding plane
should be radial and at right angles to the
face of the arch .
In the case of cornices the bed should
be vertical .

END