COAL

Coal is a stored fuel, occurring in layers

in the earths crust, which has been
formed by the partial decay of plant
materials accumulated millions of years
ago and further altered by the action of
heat and pressure.

COAL DEFINITION
IN SITU THEORY
DRIFT THEORY (Flood /Tsunami type wave velocity
800 km/h)
300 million of years/earth is 4.6 billion years old
15-20 m OF PLANT MATERIAL= 1 m OF COAL SEAM
In INDIA 30 m seam of coal has
been found
THEORIES OF COAL FORMATION
450-600 m of plant material might have
accumulated at that place.
(Taipei 101:509 m tallest building in world)
COAL FORMATION
COALIFICATION








COAL % C C H O Heating
value
(MJ/kg)
Cellulose
Wood
Peat
Lignite
Brown coal
Bituminous coal
Anthracite
Graphite
44.5
50.0
59.9
61.8
69.5
78.7
91.0
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
13.9
12.0
10.0
7.8
7.9
6.0
4.7
0.0
111
88
57
54
36
21
5.2
0.0
-
19.77
18.66
20-25
27.20
32.10
32.56
32.91
COAL RANKS
1. Peat: starting point of coal formation
does not come in the category of coal
Carbon: 62-64%; Oxygen:35-30%
2. Lignites: mark the transition of peat to coal
Carbon: 60-75% ; Oxygen: 30-20%
Colour: black, brown, earthy
Disintegrate very easily
Briquetting is done
Neyveli Lignite Corporation, Chennai
Tamilnadu possesses largest reserves in India
Electricity generation: 2490 MW
COAL RANKS contd
3. Bituminous coals
Sub-bituminous
Between lignites and bituminous
Carbon: 75-83% ; Oxygen: 20-10%
No caking power
Bituminous: black and banded
Industrial and domestic usage
Carbon: 75-90%: Oxygen:10-5%
Semi-bituminous
Between bituminous and anthracite
Metallurgical coke formation
Carbon: 90-93%; Oxygen:4-1%
COAL RANKS contd
4. Anthracites
Highest rank of coal
Extreme of metamorphosis from the original
plant material
Carbon: 93+%: Oxygen: 2-1%
Caking power zero
Unusual coals
Cannels: found rarely; high hydrogen content: burn
with smoke and bright flame; does not fall in any category.
Torbanites: fine grained coal, named after Torbane Hill
of Scotland, rich in paraffin oil.
Country Million tonnes
% of world production
China 2380
39.75
USA 1053.6
17.59
India 447.3
7.47
Australia 373.8
6.24
South Africa 256.9
4.29
Canada 62.9
1.05
United Kingdom 18.6
0.31
Pakistan 4.3
0.07
Japan 1.3
0.02
Total of the world 5,986.90 100
WORLD PRODUCTION OF COAL IN YEAR 2006

WORLD TOP TEN COAL PRODUCING AND
CONSUMING COUNTRIES
1 quadrillion=1000 trillion
1 Btu=1.055 kJ
Type of coal
TOTAL
RESERVE
PROVED
RESERVE
INDICATED
RESERVE
INFERRED
RESERVE
COKING 32 17 13 2
NON-
COKING
223 81 105 36
TOTAL 255 98 118 38

COAL RESERVES OF INDIA
Source: MoC
Years to consume this coal with present rate: 600
(As on 1.1.2007
in billion tonnes)
State Proved Indicated Inferred Total % of total
Jharkhand 36881 31094 6339 74314 29.11
Orissa 17464 30239 14296 61999 24.29
Chhattisgarh 10182 26826 4443 41451 16.24
West Bengal 11454 11810 5071 28335 11.10
Madhya Pradesh 7584 9259 2934 19777 7.75
Andhra Pradesh 8475 6328 2658 17461 6.84
Maharashtra 4856 2822 1992 9670 3.79
Uttar Pradesh 766 296 0 1062 0.42
Meghalaya 118 41 301 460 0.18
Assam 315 27 34 376 0.15
Bihar 0 0 160 160 0.06
Arunachal Pdesh 31 40 19 90 0.04
Sikkim 0 55 18 73 0.03
Nagaland 3 1 15 19 0.01
Total 98129 118838 38280 255247 100
COAL RESOURCES OF STATES
IN MILLION TONNES Jan 1, 2007
Coking coal (carbon: 81-91%)
Non-coking coal
GRADING OF INDIAN COAL
Grade Industry Ash %
I steel <15
II steel 15-18
I washery 18-21
II washery 21-24
III washery 24-28
IV washery 28-35
Grades of coking coal
High ash content (up to 50%)
Lower heating/calorific value
Inferior quality but suitable for power gen.
GRADING OF INDIAN COAL
Grade UHV, kcal/kg Ash %
A >6200 <13.56
B 5600-6200 13.56-17.91
C 4940-5600 17.91-22.69
D 4200-4940 22.69-28.06
E 3360-4200 28.06-34.14
F 2400-3360 34.14-41.10
G 1300-2400 41.10-49.07
Based on 6 % moisture content
Grades of non-coking coal
Nationalization in 1971
Coal companies are paying the
royalty to states
This varies from Rs 90-250/tonne
The rate is dependent of coal
grade
Rates are 16 August 2002 onwards
ROYALTY TO STATES
IMPORT OF COAL
Coking and non-coking coals being imported
Year Coking Non-coking Total
1991/92 5.27 0.66 5.93
1996/97 10.62 2.56 13.18
2000/01 11.06 9.87 19.70
2003/04 12.99 8.69 21.68
2005/06 16.89 21.70 38.59
2006/07 22.00 23.00 45.00
In million tonnes
Proximate analysis
Ultimate analysis
Heating/calorific value


ANALYSIS OF COAL
1. Moisture content: 105 -110
o
C
2. Volatiles: 92515
o
C for 7 min time (with lid)
3. Fixed carbon: by difference
4. Ash: 80015
o
C (without lid)
PROXIMATE ANALYSIS
IS:1350-I (1984)
REPORTING: AS RECEIVED BASIS, MOISTURE FREE
BASIS/DRY BASIS OR DRY ASH FREE BASIS
A sample of finely ground coal of mass 0.9945 g was placed
in a crucible of 8.5506 g in an oven, maintained at 105
o
C
for 4.0 ks. The sample was then removed, cooled in a
dessicator and reweighed; the procedure being repeated
until a constant total mass of 9.5340 g was attained. A second
sample, of mass 1.0120 g in a crucible of mass 8.5685 g was
heated with a lid in a furnace at 920
o
C for 420 s. On cooling
and reweighing, the total mass was 9.1921g. This sample was
then heated without a lid in the same furnace maintained at
725
o
C until a constant total mass of 8.6255 g was attained.
Calculate the proximate analysis of the sample and express
the results on as sampled and dry, ash-free basis.
EXAMPLE OF PA
MOISTURE
mass of sample = 0.9945 g
mass of dry coal = (9.5340-8.5506) = 0.9834 g
mass of moisture = (0.9945-0.9834) = 0.0111 g
% moisture = 0.0111 100/0.9945
= 1.11 %
EXAMPLE OF PA contd..
ASH
mass of sample = 1.0120 g
mass of ash = (8.6255 - 8.5685) = 0.0560 g
% ash = 0.0560 100/1.0120
= 5.53 %
VOLATILE MATTER
mass of sample = 1.0120 g
mass of volatile matter + moisture = (9.1921-8.5685)
= 0.6236 g
% = 0.6236 x 100/1.0120
= 61.60

VOLATILE MATTER = 61.60-1.11
= 60.49%
EXAMPLE OF PA contd..
FIXED CARBON
% FC = 100 - % VM - % ash - % moisture
= 100 - 60.49 - 5.53 - 1.11
= 32.87%
Proximate analysis as received basis
Moisture : 1.11%
Ash : 5.53%
Fixed carbon :32.87%
Volatile matter :60.49%

Proximate analysis on dry, ash free basis
Moisture + ash= 5.53+1.11=6.64%
Fixed carbon :32.87x100/(100-6.64)=35.21%
Volatile matter :60.49x100/(100-6.64)=64.79%

EXAMPLE OF PA contd..
1. Carbon
2. Hydrogen
3. Oxygen
4. Sulfur :0.5-2.50 %
5. Nitrogen :1.0-2.25 %
6. Phosphorus :0.1%;Blast Furnace: <0.01 %
7. Chlorine
ULTIMATE ANALYSIS
IS:1350- IV (1974)
Mercury: A big problem from NTPC plants
(up to 0.3mg/kg)
1. Calculated from proximate analysis
2. Calculated from ultimate analysis
3. Experimental determination
HEATING VALUE
1. Gross/High heating value
2. Useful/low heating value
Hydrogen Water (gas/vapor or liquid phase)
Carbon Carbon Dioxide (gas phase)
Latent heat of vaporization of water: 2.26 MJ/kg
1. Calculated from proximate analysis
HEATING VALUE
TAYLOR AND PATTERSON RELATIONSHIP
HV=4.19 (82FC+ a VM) kJ/kg
Where FC and VM are on dry ash free basis and a is
an empirical constant which depends on the VM
content of coal.




VM 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 38 40
a 145 130 117 109 103 98 94 85 80
2. Calculated from ultimate analysis
HEATING VALUE
DULONG FORMULA
HV=338.2C+1442.8(H-O/8)+94.2S kJ/kg
Where C, H, O and S are the % of these elements on
dry ash free basis.
3. Experimental determination: Bomb calorimeter
HEATING VALUE
IS:1350-II (1970)
solid /liquid samples can be analyzed
1 g air dried sample is burnt in a bomb in oxygen
atmosphere
rise in temperature gives the heat liberated and
heating value is determined after doing the
corrections for resistance wire and thread.

microprocessor based bomb calorimeters are now
available
BOMB OF CALORIEMETER
VARIOUS COMPONENTS OF BOMB
CALORIMETERIC EQUIPMENT
ROUTES OF GENERATION OF HEAT AND
POWER FROM COAL
1. Direct use as thermal energy in heating processes,
furnaces and domestic heating by open fires
2. Transfer of the heat to a thermal fluid and application of
the latter for heating and power i.e., steam for heating in
process industry, central heating and electricity
generation by steam turbines
3. Gas turbine route to electricity generation
4. Conversion to gas/liquid fuels and subsequent usage in
IC engines/turbines (gas/steam)
ROUTE I
Domestic cooking/tea stalls/dhabas
Space heating
Lime and brick kilns
Ceramic industry
Generation of steam in a boiler
Space heating by transferring heat of steam to air
Process industry : Cogeneration is employed
Utility services : steam turbines used
ROUTE II
GOVERNMENT ALLOWED ELECTRICITY GENERATION
BY PRIVATE DEVELOPERS
Tariffing
Wheeling
Banking
SUPERCRITICAL BOILERS: A RECENT CONCEPT
Critical pressure: 218 bar; Critical temperature: 374
o
C
Mark Benson; in 1922 Patent was granted
22 MPa pressure ; = 1-T
1
/T
2
ROUTE II contd..
Coal
Boiler
Steam turbine
Heat exchanger
Condensate
Coal
Hot air
for
space
heating
Alternator Electricity
to process
plant/grid
Process plant
Steam
Steam











Cogeneration
Steam
turbine
Alternator
Electricity to grid
Condensate
Steam
Steam
Air
ROUTE III
Pulverizer
Gas turbine
Heat
exchanger
Coal
Compressor
Electricity
to grid
Alternator
Preheated air
Combustion
chamber
Air
Vent
Turbine
exhaust
ROUTE III (cleaner option)
Gasifier and gas
cleaning unit
Gas turbine
Heat
exchanger
Coal
Compressor
Electricity
to grid
Alternator
Preheated air
Combustion
chamber
Air
Vent
Turbine
exhaust
ROUTE IV (Pyrolysis / Gasification)
1. Partial Gasification or Pyrolysis /coking
/carbonization / destructive distillation
(heating in the absence of air)
Solid
Liquid
Gas
2. Complete gasification with air/oxygen
Gas
PYROLYSIS


Coke (solid fuel) maximum; classical domestic smokeless fuel
production
Gas and liquid fractions low

Liquid fraction for chemicals recovery/liquid fuel

Coke for metallurgical furnaces; gas yield high; liquid low
Low temperature carbonization 500-700
o
C
High temperature carbonization >900
o
C
Medium temperature carbonization 700-900
o
C
PYROLYSIS
Pyrolyser
Coal
Condenser
Water in
Water out
Gas
for IC engines/
Gas turbines/
thermal
applications
Coke
Liquid
fraction
Gas for heating of pyrolyser
Flue gas
Pretreatment unit
Coal tar
Liquid fuels
Chemicals
GASIFICATION
ROUTE IV BERGIUS PROCESS
1. Bergius process
Friedrich Karl Rudolf Bergius in 1913, Germany
Nobel Prize in 1931
Worked with Haber
World war II 56,000 bbl per day production
Hydrogenation of vegetable oils
2. Fischer-Tropsch process
Franz Fischer and Hans Tropsch in 1926, Germany
Coal is hydrogen starved/hydrogen needs to be added to make it
liquid (directly or indirectly)
BERGIUS PROCESS
Pulverizer
Coal pasting
unit
Hydrogen Coal
Fractionating
column
Bergius
Reactor
Heavy fraction
HCs
T=400-500
o
C
P= 20 -70 MPa
Catalyst=Tin
Conver.=97%
F-T PROCESS
Gasification
unit
Syn gas
Cleaning
Coal
Fractionating
column
F-T
Reactor
HCs
T=150-250
o
C
P= 1 -25 MPa
Syn gas
Catalysts : Iron or cobalt based
Large number of patents worldwide
F-T PROCESS (COMMERCIAL PLANTS)
South Africa Oil and Gas
Company
1950 established
Oldest plant proving the F-T
process viability
Presently engaged in Qatar,
Iran and Nigeria in similar
projects
F-T PROCESS (COMMERCIAL PLANTS)
F-T PROCESS(COMMERCIAL PLANTS)
F-T PROCESS
Players in this area of Gas To Liquid (GTL)
1. GE
2. Exxon
3. Shell
4. BP
5. Chevron
6. Sasol
With crude touching the $145+ these two
technologies would be economically viable now
UNDERGROUND/ IN SITU COAL
GASIFICATION
A process applied to the non-mined coal seams
Injection and production wells are drilled
End gas mix depends on type of coal seam
Air/ oxygen can be used for gasification
Syn gas can be used for power generation in combined cycle
Syn gas can be converted to chemicals/fuel by F-T process
UNDERGROUND/ IN SITU COAL
GASIFICATION
Source: World Coal Institute
COAL COMBUSTION AND ENVIORNMENT
Global warming
Green house gases: water vapor, carbon dioxide,
methane, nitrous oxide, CFCs, SF
6
(circuit breakers,
high DE constant)
SF
6
is 22, 200 more potential than CO
2
Carbon dioxide gas: main culprit from fossil fuels; not
from biomass
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
Nobel Peace Prize 2007 : R. K. Pauchari and Al Gore
Reduction in Carbon Dioxide emissions
G8 meeting in Japan in July 2008

COAL COMBUSTION AND ENVIORNMENT
Carbon Dioxide Emissions and Carbon Dioxide Concentrations (1751-2004)
Present CO
2
level:483 PPM
COAL COMBUSTION AND ENVIORNMENT
Global Carbon Cycle (Billion Metric Tons Carbon)
COAL COMBUSTION AND ENVIORNMENT
U.S. Anthropogenic Greenhouse Gas Emissions by Gas,
2006 (Million Metric Tons of Carbon Dioxide Equivalent)
CARBON DIOXIDE CAPTURE AND SEQUESTRATION
Sequestration
1. Gaseous storage in various deep geological formations (including
saline formations and exhausted gas fields)
2. Liquid storage in the ocean
3. Solid storage by reaction of carbon dioxide with metal oxides
to produce stable carbonates
Capture
Proven technology being used in process industries and power plants

BUT THE COST IS DECIDING FACTOR
ULTIMATE SOLUTIONS

Fuel cells: Chemical to electrical conversion


Solar: photovoltaic


Hybrid vehicles: Honda introduced in India