Nuclear Reactions

Changes in matter originating from the nucleus

of an atom.
Radioactivity
Spontaneous emission of particles and/radiation


+
a
b
g
Lead block
Radioactive substance

Three types of ray are produced by the decay, or
breakdown, of radioactive substances

Alpha rays ( ) consist of positively charged
particles called alpha particles and therefore are
deflected by the positively charged plate.
Beta rays ( ) or beta particles are electrons
and deflected by negatively charged plate
Gamma rays ( ) have no charged and are not
affected by an external electric field or magnetic
field

Radioactive
When a nuclei change spontaneously, emitting
energy

Nucleons
Particles in the nucleus

Radionuclide
Radioactive nucleus

Radioisotopes
Atoms containing radionuclide
Nuclear Equations
Radionuclides are unstable and spontaneously
emit particles and/or electromagnetic radiation
Example: Uranium-238
Emits alpha particles (helium-4 particles)

Radioactive decay


Balancing Nuclear Equations
1. Conserve mass number (A).
The sum of protons plus neutrons in the products must equal the sum of protons
plus neutrons in the reactants.
1
n

0
U
235
92
+
Cs
138
55
Rb
96
37
1
n

0
+ + 2
235 + 1 = 138 + 96 + 2x1
2. Conserve atomic number (Z) or nuclear charge.
The sum of nuclear charges in the products must equal the sum of nuclear charges
in the reactants.
1
n

0
U
235
92
+
Cs
138
55
Rb
96
37
1
n

0
+ + 2
92 + 0 = 55 + 37 + 2x0
23.1
Three Types of Radiation
lpha Radiation
The loss of alpha particles (helium-4)

Beta Radiation
Loss of an electron from the nucleus
High-speed electrons beta particles







Gamma Radiation
Loss of high-speed photons from the nucleus


Types of Radioactive decay
Positron emission
Positron same mass as an electron but
opposite in sign

Electron capture
The nucleus captures an electron from the
electron cloud surrounding the nucleus.

Strong Nuclear Force
Cohesive forces in the nucleus that hold the
nucleons together.

Interactions in the nucleus
Proton-proton
Proton neutron
Neutron neutron

n/p too large
beta decay
X
n/p too small
positron decay or electron capture
Y
23.2
Belt of Stability
Portion of the graph that
contains all stable nuclei

Nuclei with 84 or more
protons are radioactive

Nuclei above the belt
beta emission

Nuclei below the belt
positron emission or
electron capture


Predicting the mode of decay

1. High n/p ratio (too many neutrons;
lie above band of stability) ---
undergoes beta decay

2. Low n/p ratio (neutron poor; lie
below band of stability) --- positron
decay or electron capture

3. Heavy nuclides ( Z > 83) --- alpha
decay
Rate of Radioactive Decay
Half-life
Indicates the rate at which a radionuclide decays
Time it takes for one half of a given quantity of a
radioisotope to decay

Exercises:
Nuclear Transmutations

Nuclear reactions that are induced in a way that nucleus is struck
by a neutron or by another nucleus (nuclear bombardment)
a. Positive ion bombardment
- alpha particle is the most commonly used positive ion
- uses accelerators
Examples:

14
7
N +
4
2
He
17
8
O +
1
1
H

9
4
Be +
4
2
He
12
6
C +
1
0
n

b. Neutron bombardment
- neutron is bombarded to a nucleus to form a new nucleus
- most commonly used in the transmutation to form synthetic
isotopes because neutron are neutral, they are not repelled by
nucleus
Example:

58
26
Fe +
1
0
n
59
26
Fe
59
27
Co +
0
-1
e
Transuranium elements
-Element with atomic numbers above 92
-Produced using artificial transmutations, either by:
a. alpha bombardment
b. neutron bombardment
c. bombardment from other nuclei
Examples:

a.

b.

4
He

2
Pu
239
94
+
Cm
242
96
1
n

0
+
1
n

0
U
238
92
+
U
239
92
0
e

-1
Pu
239
94
+
Np
239
93
+
0
-1
e
14
N

7
U
238
92
+
Es
247
99
1
n

0
+
5 c.
Nuclear Energy
Recall:
Nucleus is composed of proton and neutron
Then, is the mass of an atom equal to the total mass of all the proton
plus the total mass of all the neutron?

Example for a He atom:
Total mass of the subatomic particles
= mass of 2 p
+
+ mass of 2n
0
= 2 ( 1.00728 amu ) + 2 (1.00867 amu)
= 4.03190 amu
And atomic weight of He-4 is 4.00150

Why does the mass differ if the atomic mass = number of protons +
number of neutrons?


Mass defect
-mass difference due to the release of energy
-this mass can be calculated using Einsteins equation

E =mc
2
2
1
1
H + 2
2
0
H
4
2
He + energy

Therefore:
-energy is released upon the formation of a nucleus from
the constituent protons and neutrons
-the nucleus is lower in energy than the component parts.
-The energy released is a measure of the stability of the
nucleus. Taking the reverse of the equation:
4
2
He + energy 2
1
1
H + 2
2
0
n

Therefore,
-energy is released to break up the nucleus into its component parts.
This is called the nuclear binding energy.
-the higher the binding energy, the stable the nuclei.
-isotopes with high binding energy and most stable are those in the
mass range 50-60.
Nuclear binding energy per nucleon vs Mass number
nuclear binding energy
nucleon
nuclear stability
23.2
-The plot shows the use of nuclear reactions as
source of energy.
-energy is released in a process which goes from
a higher energy state (less stable, low binding
energy) to a low energy state (more stable, high
binding energy).
-Using the plot, there are two ways in which
energy can be released in nuclear reactions:
a. Fission splitting of a heavy nucleus
into smaller nuclei
b. Fusion combining of two light nuclei
to form a heavier, more stable nucleus.
Nuclear binding energy (BE) is the energy required to
break up a nucleus into its component protons and neutrons.
BE +
19
F 9
1
p + 10
1
n
9
1
0
BE = 9 x (p mass) + 10 x (n mass)
19
F mass
E = mc
2

BE (amu) = 9 x 1.007825 + 10 x 1.008665 18.9984
BE = 0.1587 amu 1 amu = 1.49 x 10
-10
J
BE = 2.37 x 10
-11
J
binding energy per nucleon =
binding energy
number of nucleons
=
2.37 x 10
-11
J
19 nucleons
= 1.25 x 10
-12
J
23.2
23.3
Radiocarbon Dating
14
N +
1
n
14
C +
1
H

7 1 6
0
14
C
14
N +
0
b + n

6
7 -1
t

= 5730 years
Uranium-238 Dating
238
U
206
Pb + 8
4
a + 6
0
b

92 -1 82 2
t

= 4.51 x 10
9
years
23.3
Nuclear Transmutation
Cyclotron Particle Accelerator
14
N +
4
a
17
O +
1
p

7 2 8 1
27
Al +
4
a
30
P +
1
n

13 2 15 0
14
N +
1
p
11
C +
4
a

7 1 6 2
23.4
Nuclear Transmutation
23.4
Nuclear Fission
23.5
235
U +
1
n
90
Sr +
143
Xe + 3
1
n + Energy

92 54 38 0 0
Energy = [mass
235
U + mass n (mass
90
Sr + mass
143
Xe + 3 x mass n )] x c
2

Energy = 3.3 x 10
-11
J per
235
U
= 2.0 x 10
13
J per mole
235
U
Combustion of 1 ton of coal = 5 x 10
7
J
Nuclear Fission
23.5
235
U +
1
n
90
Sr +
143
Xe + 3
1
n + Energy

92 54 38 0 0
Representative fission reaction
Nuclear Fission
23.5
Nuclear chain reaction is a self-sustaining sequence of nuclear fission
reactions.
The minimum mass of fissionable material required to generate a self-sustaining
nuclear chain reaction is the critical mass.
Non-critical
Critical
Nuclear Fission
23.5
Schematic diagram
of a nuclear fission
reactor
Annual Waste Production
23.5
35,000 tons SO
2

4.5 x 10
6
tons CO
2

1,000 MW coal-fired
power plant
3.5 x 10
6
ft
3
ash
1,000 MW nuclear
power plant
70 ft
3

vitrified
waste
Nuclear Fission
23.5
Nuclear Fission
Hazards of the radioactivities
in spent fuel compared to
uranium ore
From Science, Society and Americas Nuclear Waste, DOE/RW-0361 TG
23.6
Nuclear Fusion
2
H +
2
H
3
H +
1
H

1 1 1 1
Fusion Reaction Energy Released
2
H +
3
H
4
He +
1
n

1 1 2 0
6
Li +
2
H 2
4
He

3 1 2
6.3 x 10
-13
J
2.8 x 10
-12
J
3.6 x 10
-12
J
Tokamak magnetic
plasma confinement
23.7
Radioisotopes in Medicine
1 out of every 3 hospital patients will undergo a nuclear medicine procedure

24
Na, t

= 14.8 hr, b emitter, blood-flow tracer

131
I, t

= 14.8 hr, b emitter, thyroid gland activity

123
I, t

= 13.3 hr, g-ray emitter, brain imaging

18
F, t

= 1.8 hr, b
+
emitter, positron emission tomography

99m
Tc, t

= 6 hr, g-ray emitter, imaging agent

Brain images with
123
I-labeled
compound
Geiger-Mller Counter
23.7
23.8
Biological Effects of Radiation
Radiation absorbed dose (rad)
1 rad = 1 x 10
-5
J/g of material
Roentgen equivalent for man (rem)
1 rem = 1 rad x Q Quality Factor
g-ray = 1
b = 1
a = 20
Chemistry In Action: Food Irradiation
Dosage Effect
Up to 100 kilorad
Inhibits sprouting of potatoes, onions, garlics.
Inactivates trichinae in pork. Kills or prevents insects
from reproducing in grains, fruits, and vegetables.
100 1000 kilorads
Delays spoilage of meat poultry and fish. Reduces
salmonella. Extends shelf life of some fruit.
1000 to 10,000 kilorads
Sterilizes meat, poultry and fish. Kills insects and
microorganisms in spices and seasoning.