M.S.

Process & Mechanical

Engineering 3rd Semester
Basic Assumptions
Following assumption are mostly applied to simplify the governing
equations
Flow is steady i.e. at each cross section of a flow passage the
magnitudes of flow properties are invariant with time
Flow is uniform i.e. area of flow passage is either constant or changes
gradually.
Effects of body forces are negligible justified usually for gas flows.
Ideal behavior of working fluid i.e. working fluid behaves
thermodynamically in accordance with
1. Thermal Equation of state
2. Caloric Equation of state
The results obtained after applying above assumptions are quite
accurate for internal flows and are useful qualitative for understanding
external flows
The One Dimensional Flow Concept
1/
max
1
n
y
u u
R
| |
=
|
\ .
2
max
2
1
y
u u
R
| |
=
|
\ .
Velocity profiles in a duct of
Radius R for
Laminar flow is
Turbulent flow is
Most commonly employed assumption is that Flow is one dimensional
i.e. all fluid properties are uniform over every cross section of flow passage.
The One Dimensional Flow Concept, contd
One dimensional flow
approximation is quite accurate
for throat of converging and C-
D nozzles and Diffusers.
It may lead to errors flow
inside passages with
complicated shapes and
ducts with developing flow
One dimensional flow concept is approximation as far as flow model
is concerned.
No approximation is introduced while deriving the flow equations
mathematically.
Necessary condition for One dimensional flow
1. Rate of change of flow driving potentials should be small in flow
direction
2. Radius of curvature of flow passage should be large
3. Profiles of flow properties should be self similar
One dimensional flow model considers changes only in average flow
properties in the direction of flow.
The One Dimensional Flow Concept, contd.
Conservation of Mass For Steady 1D Flow
Integral form of Law of conservation
of Mass can be given as
0
Applying Eq. to Fig. shown:
Integrating above eq.
Continuity eq.
Integral form of momentum eq for x
i
direction is:


For steady frictionless flow the Equation becomes:
Dynamics of Steady 1D Flow
(Frictionless Flow)
0 0
For the flow model:
, , and
i i
u V V = = = n i V i
On the face where mass leaves CV
d dA = A i
On the face where mass enters CV d dA = A i
The only body force considered is that caused by gravitational
attraction i.e. = B g
Dynamics of Steady 1D Flow
(Frictionless Flow), contd.
Component of body
force in x-direction is:
Agdz i
/ sin dA o
Stream tube boundary
area is:
At inlet properties are
p, , V, V
2
/2, pA
At outlet properties are
p+dp, +d, V+dV, V
2
/2+d(V
2
/2), pA+d(pA)
Dynamics of Steady 1D Flow
(Frictionless Flow), contd.
After substitution we get:
Canceling like terms and neglecting higher order terms:
Substituting
0 dp VdV gdz + + =
We get
Bernoulli equation
Integrating:
2
2
dp V
gz const

+ + =
}
Holds for steady, 1D, frictionless flow along a streamline
Dynamics of Steady 1D Flow
(Frictionless Flow), contd
Incompressible Fluid:
= constant


Adiabatic Flow of Compressible Fluid
2
2
p V
gz const

+ + =
0
dp d
VdV gdz
d


+ + =
But
2
s
p dp
a
d
| | c
= =
|
c
\ .
And assuming
0 gdz =
2
0
d dV
M
V

+ =
Dynamics of Steady 1D Flow
(Frictional Flow)
Net external force in x-direction is given by:
( )
f
gAdz Adp F D o o + + +
Putting it we get:
oF
f
is represented in terms of
1. Hydraulic characteristics of flow channel

2. Experimental friction coefficient f
( )( )
2 2
2
1 1
1
2 2
2
tangential Force
( )
f
F
f
V WP dx V
V wetted area
o
t

= = =
Dynamics of Steady 1D Flow
(Frictional Flow), contd.
So
2 2
4
( )
2 2
f
V V fdx
F f WP dx A

o
| |
= =
|
\ .
D
Substituting for oF
f
Incompressible flow
= const
oD = 0
Dynamics of Steady 1D Flow
(Frictional Flow), contd.
2
/ p a =
Compressible Flow of Perfect Gas
Divide by p
Note That
As V
2
= M
2
a
2
and da
2
/a
2
= dt/t we get

Substituting
Thermodynamics of Steady 1D Flow
Flow with Work and Heat Transfer (Infinitesimal CV)
Thermodynamics of Steady 1D Flow, contd.
Canceling like terms and dividing by m we get
Flow with Work and Heat Transfer (Finite CV)
Evaluating integrals and dividing by m
Adiabatic Flow with No External Work (Infinitesimal CV)
For such flows
Adiabatic Flow with No External Work (Finite CV)
Isoenergetic Flow
Isentropic Flow
Bernoulli equation
Applies to flow with or
without friction
Thermodynamics of Steady 1D Flow, contd
Adiabatic Flow of Perfect Gas
1. Ideal Gas
2. dh = c
p
dt
3. g dz = 0
const
V
t c
V
t c
V
t c
p p p
= + = + = +
2 2 2
2
2
2
2
2
1
1
For Ideal gas
Rt a R c
p
= =
2
and ) 1 /(
const
a V a V a V
=

+ =

+ =

+
1 2 1 2 1 2
2 2
2
2
2
2
2
1
2
1

Thermodynamics of Steady 1D Flow, contd
Taking
1
2

a
common
As
Rt a =
2
Thermodynamics of Steady 1D Flow, contd
Isentropic Discharge Speed for a Perfect Gas
Process is
1. Adiabatic
2. Frictionless
So we can apply
const
V
t c
V
t c
V
t c
p p p
= + = + = +
2 2 2
2
2
2
2
2
1
1
with P p T t V = = ~
1 1 1
and , 0 and
p p t t V V
'
=
'
=
'
=
2 2 2
and ,
We get
process Isentropic
gas perfect for ) 1 /(
/ ) 1 (

|
.
|

\
|
'
=
'
=
P
p
T
t
R c
p
But
Venant-Wantzel Equation
Thermodynamics of Steady 1D Flow, contd
Since
m
R
R =
2 / 1
/ ) 1 (
1
1
2

(
(

|
.
|

\
|
'

=
'

P
p
m
T R
V
Discharge speed can be controlled by
1.
2. m T /
P p /
'
Thermodynamics of Steady 1D Flow, contd.
2
nd
Law of Thermodynamics for Steady 1D Flow
Entropy Eq. for control volume is:
For infinitesimal control volume eq becomes:
Expression for oQ must be derived for the particular heat transfer process
For adiabatic process
This equation determines the direction of the process
Some General Effects of Compressibility on Fluid Flow
Speed of Propagation of Small Disturbance
Pressure disturbances are transmitted in a fluid as successive
compressive and rarefaction waves because of elastic nature of fluid
Since a sound wave consists of a
repeating pattern of high pressure
and low pressure regions moving
through a medium, it is sometimes
referred to as a pressure wave
Some General Effects of Compressibility on Fluid Flow
Stationary observer
Unsteady Case
Observer moving with pressure wave
Steady Case
Flow is 1 Dimensional
Some General Effects of Compressibility on Fluid Flow
In momentum eq.
0 /
0
0
= c c
=
=
t V
F
B
shear
) . ( A V V A d pd
A A
} }
=
) ( )] ( [ ) ( c m dV c m A dp p pA = + +

( )
dV dV
dp m Ac cdV
A A
= = =
So the Eq. becomes
For the control volume shown
Simplifying
From continuity Eq. ( ) ( ) ( )
Ac d A c dV = + Solving for dV
d
dV c

=
dp
c
d
=
Put in
momentum eq
Some General Effects of Compressibility on Fluid Flow
1. Changes within wave are slight Flow is reversible
2. No heat addition
Hence, the process inside wave is isentropic, so
s
p
c

| | c
=
|
c
\ .
For calorically perfect gas
1 1
2 2
p
p

| |
=
|
\ .
co p nst

=
So
1
s
p p p

| | | | c
= =
| |
c
\ . \ .
Hence
p
c

=
But
p
RT

=
c RT =
Some General Effects of Compressibility on Fluid Flow
Isothermal compressibility
1
s
s
v
v p
t
| | c
=
|
c
\ .
But
2
1/ and / v dv d = =
Hence
2
1 1
( / )
s
s
s
p p

t

| |
( c
= =
|
(
|
c c c

\ .
Here
2
( / )
s
p c c c =
1
s
c
t
=
So
s
V
M V
c
t = =
Some General Effects of Compressibility on Fluid Flow
Pressure Disturbances in a Compressible Fluid
Stationary Source
Source with
subsonic Velocity
Some General Effects of Compressibility on Fluid Flow
Source with sonic
Velocity
Source with
supersonic Velocity
M Vt
at 1
sin = =
M
1
sin
1
=
Compressibility Factor
Dynamic Pressure Pressure increase caused by deceleration
Stagnation Pressure is given as
Dynamic Pressure for compressible flow
Using Binomial Theorem
Taking
2
/ 2 M common and noting that
2 2
/ 2 / 2 pM V =
Compressibility Factor