Some engineering problems require consideration of
forces causing motion, in addition to motion characteristics. The branch of dynamics that deals with such problems involving relationship between motion of particles or a rigid body and its causes is called kinetics. The causes of motion may be forces, moments, or a combination of these. Generally, the Newtons laws of motion are used to solve such problems. However, another principle known as DAlemberts principle is best suited for these problems Newtons Laws English scientist, Sir Isaac Newton in 1687, form the basis of classical mechanics. They describe the relationship between motion of a body and the forces causing the motion. They relate the velocity and acceleration of a body to changes in its energy and momentum. Newtons first law An object tends to remain in its state of rest or of motion in straight line with constant velocity; unless it experiences a net external force. This tendency of a body to retain its state is known as inertia. Hence, this is also known as law of inertia. This law implies : Objects in vacuum move with constant velocity, if no external force acts on them. External force originates from outside the object. Hence, an external agent is required to change the velocity of the object.
Newtons second law The net force acting on an object is equal to rate of change of its linear momentum (mv) with time in an inertial frame of reference.
For mass remaining constant,
where, a is the acceleration of the object. It can also be stated as the acceleration of an object is directly proportional to the net external force acting on it and inversely proportional to its mass. ( ) d mv F dt = dv F m ma F ma dt = = = Newtons third law To every action, there is always an opposite reaction of same magnitude. In other words, this law may be stated as the mutual actions of two bodies upon each other are always equal and opposite in direction. This implies that whenever a motion is restrained, reaction is produced.
D Alemberts Principle It is an alternative to Newtons second law and leads to a simpler solution in some special cases. It states that the net external force on a body plus the negative of inertia force is equal to zero.
When a force F is applied on a body of mass m, an acceleration a is produced. If a fictitious force (equal to inertia force ma) is applied to the body in a direction opposite to that of acceleration a, the body comes in equilibrium.
We can then write
0 F ma = This is the most common form of D' Alembert's principle. This implies that the body is in dynamic equilibrium under the action of the real force F and the fictitious force, ma. This fictitious force is called inertial force. It acts through the centre of mass of the rigid body. By using DAlemberts principle, effectively a dynamics problem changes into a problem of statics.
0 F ma = DAlemberts principle for Rotating Body Similarly, in case of a rotating body, net moment (F.r) about mass centre can be balanced by inertial torque (I.), where I is the centroidal mass moment of inertia, are the angular acceleration. Therefore, according to DAlemberts principle,
0 Fr Io = A man weighing 700 N stands on the floor of a lift. Determine the force exerted on the floor when (a) the lift moves upward with an acceleration of 1.5 m/s 2 , and (b) the lift moves downward with an acceleration of 1.5 m/s 2 . (c) If 800-N force is being exerted on the floor, with what acceleration the lift is moving? Solve the problem by using D Alemberts principle.
Motion of Vehicles on Curved Roads Motion of vehicles on Level and Banked roads Centripetal acc, 2 / n a v r = (a) The Angle of Leaning For equilibrium (no overturning), the sum of moments about point A must be zero, therefore A 0: ( tan ) ( ) 0 n M W h ma h u E = = 2 tan W v Wh h g r u | | | | = | | \ .\ . 2 2 1 ta ta n n v rg v rg u u
| | = | \ = .
(b) Maximum Speed to Avoid Skidding
For equilibrium in vertical and horz. directions,
Skidding can be avoided if frictional force F developed is sufficient to balance the centrifugal force. Thus, maximum value of frictional force,
0: 0 y F R W R W E = = = 0: 0 x n n F ma F F ma E = = = max F R W = = 2 2 max or n W v F ma W v gr g r
| | > > s | \ . max v gr = Motion of a Vehicle on a Level Circular Road Apply inertial force ma n to bring the vehicle in dynamic equilibrium. A B A B 0 : + 0 + y F R R W R R W E = = = B A 2 B 0 : (2 ) ( ) ( ) 0 2 0 n M R b W b ma h W v bR bW h g r E = = | | = | \ . 2 B 1 2 W v h R grb | | = + | \ . 2 A B 1 2 W v h R W R W grb | | = = + | \ . 2 A 1 2 W v h R grb | | = | \ . (b) Maximum Speed to Avoid Overturning Overturning would take place, if wheel A lifts off the ground when reaction R A tends to become zero. Therefore, to avoid overturning, we must have A 0 R > max grb v h = 2 1 0 2 W v h grb | | > | \ . 2 1 v h grb v grb h s s (c) Maximum Speed to Avoid Skidding If centrifugal force becomes more than the total frictional force (F A + F B ) on the tyres of the vehicle, it will skid away from the centre C. To avoid skidding, ( ) A B + n ma F F s ( ) 2 A B + W v R R g r
| | | | s | | \ .\ . 2 W v W g r
| | | | s | | \ .\ . max v gr = Motion of a Vehicle on Banked Circular Road To reduce the possibility of overturning of vehicles while moving on a curved road, the road is slightly slanted by making the outer edge higher than the inner edge. This is called banking of the road, and height different as Superelevation. Banking required to avoid overturning Apply inertial force ma n on the car to bring it in dynamic equilibrium.
Dividing one eq. by other
From this, optimum speed, 0: sin 0 x n F ma R u E = = 2 2 sin 0 sin W V WV R R g r gr u u | | | | = = | | \ .\ . 0: cos 0 cos y F R W R W u u E = = = 2 2 1 tan tan V V gr gr u u
| | = = | \ . tan V gr u = A ball weighing 100 g is suspended from the ceiling of a railway carriage, as shown in Fig. The suspending string was found to make an angle of 12 with vertical during negotiating a horizontal curve of radius 90 m. Determine the velocity of the carriage and the tension in the string.
A vehicle weighting 15 000 N is to negotiate a circular corner of radius 120 m on a level road with a speed of 36 km/h. The height of its CG above the road is 1 m and the distance between its wheels is 1.5 m. Find the reactions at the wheels. At what maximum speed can it move to turn the corner without fear of overturning ?