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Magnesium
occurs typically as the Mg2+ ion. It is an essential mineral nutrient for life[1][2]
[3] and is present in every cell type in every organism. For example, ATP
(adenosine triphosphate), the main source of energy in cells, must be bound to
a magnesium ion in order to be biologically active. What is called ATP is often
actually Mg-ATP. [4]. Similarly, magnesium plays a role in the stability of all
polyphosphate compounds in the cells, including those associated with DNA
and RNA
Function
• A balance of magnesium is vital to the well being of all
organisms. Magnesium is a relatively abundant ion in the
lithosphere and is highly bioavailable in the hydrosphere.
This ready availability, in combination with a useful and
very unusual chemistry, may have led to its usefulness in
evolution as an ion for signalling, enzyme activation and
catalysis. However, the unusual nature of ionic
magnesium has also led to a major challenge in the use
of the ion in biological systems. Biological membranes
are impermeable to Mg2+ (and other ions) so transport
proteins must facilitate the flow of Mg2+, both into and
out of cells and intracellular compartments.
Biological range, distribution, and
regulation
• In animals it has been shown that different cell types maintain different concentrations of
magnesium.[5][6][7][8] It seems likely that the same is true for plants.[9][10] This suggests that
different cell types may regulate influx and efflux of magnesium in different ways based on their
unique metabolic needs. Interstitial and systemic concentrations of free magnesium must be
delicately maintained by the combined processes of buffering (binding of ions to proteins and
other molecules) and muffling (the transport of ions to storage or extracellular spaces[11]).
• In plants, and more recently in animals, magnesium has been recognized as an important
signaling ion, both activating and mediating many biochemical reactions. The best example of
this is perhaps the regulation of carbon fixation in chloroplasts in the Calvin cycle.[12][13]
• The importance of magnesium to proper cellular function cannot be overstated. Deficiency of the
nutrient results in disease in the affected organism. In single-celled organisms such as bacteria
and yeast, low levels of magnesium manifests in greatly reduced growth rates. In magnesium
transport knockout strains of bacteria, healthy rates are maintained only with exposure to very
high external concentrations of the ion.[14][15] In yeast, mitochondrial magnesium deficiency is
also leads to disease.[16]
• Plants deficient in magnesium show stress responses. The first observable signs of both
magnesium starvation and overexposure in plants is a decrease in the rate of photosynthesis.
This is due to the central position of the Mg++ ion in the chlorophyll molecule. The later effects of
magnesium deficiency on plants are a significant reduction in growth and reproductive viability.[3]
Magnesium can also be toxic to plants, although this is typically seen only in drought conditions.
[17][18]
Biological range, distribution, and
regulation
• Space-filling model of the chlorophyll a molecule, with the
Magnesium ion (bright green) visible at the center of the porphyrin
group
• In animals, magnesium deficiency (hypomagnesemia) is seen when
the environmental availability of magnesium is low. In ruminant
animals, particularly vulnerable to magnesium availability in pasture
grasses, the condition is known as ‘grass tetany’. Hypomagnesemia
is identified by a loss of balance due to muscle weakness.[19] A
number of genetically attributable hypomagnesemia disorders have
also been identified in humans.[20][21][22][23]
• Overexposure to magnesium may be toxic to individual cells, though
these effects have been difficult to show experimentally. In humans
the condition is termed hypermagnesemia, and is well documented,
though it is usually caused by loss of kidney function. In healthy
individuals, excess magnesium is rapidly excreted in the urine
Human health
• Magnesium deficiency in humans was first described in the medical literature in 1934.
The adult human daily nutritional requirement, which is affected by various factors
including gender, weight and size, is 300-400 mg/day. Inadequate magnesium intake
frequently causes muscle spasms, and has been associated with
cardiovascular disease, diabetes, high blood pressure, anxiety disorders, migraines,
osteoporosis and cerebral infarction[24]. Acute deficiency (see hypomagnesemia) is
rare, and is more common as a drug side effect (such as chronic alcohol or diuretic
use) than from low food intake per se, but it can also occur within people fed
intravenously for extended periods of time. The incidence of chronic deficiency
resulting in less than optimal health is debated.
• The DRI upper tolerated limit for supplemental magnesium is 350 mg/day (calculated
as milligrams (mg) of elemental magnesium in the salt). (Supplements based on
amino acid chelates, such as glycinate, lysinate etc., are much better tolerated by the
digestive system and do not have the side effects of the older compounds used, while
sustained release supplements prevent the occurrence of diarrhea.)[citation needed]
The most common symptom of excess oral magnesium intake is diarrhea. Since the
kidneys of adult humans excrete excess magnesium efficiently, oral magnesium
poisoning in adults with normal renal function is very rare. Infants, which have less
ability to excrete excess magnesium even when healthy, should not be given
magnesium supplements, except under a physician's care
Human health
Magnesium salts (usually in the form of magnesium sulfate or chloride
when given parenterally) are used therapeutically for a number of
medical conditions, see Epsom salts for a list of conditions which have
been treated with supplemental magnesium ion. Magnesium is
absorbed with reasonable efficiency (30% to 40%) by the body from
any soluble magnesium salt, such as the chloride or citrate.
Magnesium is similarly absorbed from Epsom salts, although the
sulfate in these salts adds to their laxative effect at higher doses.
Magnesium absorption from the insoluble oxide and hydroxide salts (
milk of magnesia) is erratic and of poorer efficiency, since it depends
on the neutralization and solution of the salt by the acid of the
stomach, which may not be (and usually is not) complete.
Magnesium orotate may be used as adjuvant therapy in patients on
optimal treatment for severe congestive heart failure, increasing
survival rate and improving clinical symptoms and patient's quality of
life
Nerve Conduction
• Magnesium can effect muscle relaxation
through direct action on the cell
membrane. Mg++ ions close certain types
of calcium channels, which conduct a
positively charged calcium ion into the
neuron. With an excess of magnesium,
more channels will be blocked and the
nerve will have less activity
Hypertension
• Magnesium-containing Epsom salts are especially used
in treating the hypertension of eclampsia. Even if the
case is not eclampsia, there may be antihypertensive
effects of having a substantial portion of the intake of
sodium chloride (NaCl) exchanged for e.g. magnesium
chloride; NaCl is an osmolite and increases
arginine vasopressin (AVP) release, which increases
extracellular volume and thus results in increased blood
pressure. However, not all osmolites have this effect on
AVP release[26], so with magnesium chloride, the
increase in osmolarity may not cause such a
hypertensive response
Food sources
• Some good sources of magnesium.
• Green vegetables such as spinach provide magnesium because of the abundance of chlorophyll molecules which
contain the ion. Nuts (especially cashews and almonds), seeds, and some whole grains are also good sources of
magnesium.
• Although many foods contain magnesium, it is usually found in low levels. As with most nutrients, daily needs for
magnesium are unlikely to be met by one serving of any single food. Eating a wide variety of fruits, vegetables,
and grains will help ensure adequate intake of magnesium.
• Because magnesium readily dissolves in water, refined foods, which are often processed or cooked in water and
dried, are generally poor sources of the nutrient. For example, whole-wheat bread has twice as much magnesium
as white bread because the magnesium-rich germ and bran are removed when white flour is processed. The
table of food sources of magnesium suggests many dietary sources of magnesium.
• "Hard" water can also provide magnesium, but "soft" water does not contain the ion. Dietary surveys do not
assess magnesium intake from water, which may lead to underestimating total magnesium intake and its
variability.
• Too much magnesium may make it difficult for the body to absorb calcium. Not enough magnesium can lead to
hypomagnesemia as described above, with irregular heartbeats, high blood pressure (a sign in humans but not
some experimental animals such as rodents), insomnia and muscle spasms (fasciculation). However, as noted,
symptoms of low magnesium from pure dietary deficiency are thought to be rarely encountered.
• Following are some foods and the amount of magnesium in them:
• spinach (1/2 cup) = 80 milligrams (mg)
• peanut butter (2 tablespoons) = 50 mg
• black-eyed peas (1/2 cup) = 45 mg
• milk: low fat (1 cup) = 40 mg
Biological chemistry
• The magnesium ion is necessary for all life (see magnesium in biology), so
magnesium salts are an additive for foods, fertilizers (Mg is a component of
chlorophyll), and culture media.
• Magnesium hydroxide is used in milk of magnesia, its chloride, oxide,
gluconate, malate, orotate and citrate used as oral magnesium
supplements, and its sulfate (Epsom salts) for various purposes in medicine,
and elsewhere (see the article for more). Oral magnesium supplements
have been claimed to be therapeutic for some individuals who suffer from
Restless Leg Syndrome (RLS).[citation needed]
• Magnesium borate, magnesium salicylate and magnesium sulfate are used
as antiseptics.
• Magnesium bromide is used as a mild sedative (this action is due to the
bromide, not the magnesium).
• Dead-burned magnesite is used for refractory purposes such as brick and
liners in furnaces and converters.
• Magnesium carbonate (MgCO3) powder is also used by athletes, such as
gymnasts and weightlifters, to improve the grip on objects – the apparatus
or lifting bar
magnesium compounds
• Magnesium stearate is a slightly flammable white powder
with lubricative properties. In pharmaceutical technology
it is used in the manufacturing of tablets, to prevent the
tablets from sticking to the equipment during the tablet
compression process (i.e., when the tablet's substance is
pressed into tablet form).
• Magnesium sulfite is used in the manufacture of paper (
sulfite process).
• Magnesium phosphate is used to fireproof wood for
construction.
• Magnesium hexafluorosilicate is used in mothproofing of
textiles
Biological role
• Due to the important interaction between phosphate and
magnesium ions, magnesium ions are essential to the basic
nucleic acid chemistry of life, and thus are essential to all cells of all
known living organisms. Over 300 enzymes require the presence of
magnesium ions for their catalytic action, including all enzymes
utilizing or synthesizing ATP, or those which use other nucleotides
to synthesize DNA and RNA. ATP exists in cells normally as a
chelate of ATP and a magnesium ion.
• Plants have an additional use for magnesium in that chlorophylls are
magnesium-centered porphyrins. Magnesium deficiency in plants
causes late-season yellowing between leaf veins, especially in older
leaves, and can be corrected by applying Epsom salts (which is
rapidly leached), or else crushed dolomitic limestone to the soil.
Food sources of magnesium
• (Magnesium is a vital component of a healthy human diet.
Human magnesium deficiency including conditions which show few overt symptoms)
is relatively common, with only 32% of the United States meeting the RDA-DRI,[9]
and has been implicated in the development of a number of human illnesses such as
asthma, osteoporosis, and ADHD.[10]
• Adult human bodies contain about 24 grams of magnesium, with 60% in the skeleton,
39% intracellular (20% in skeletal muscle), and 1% extracellular. Serum levels are
typically 0.7 – 1.0 mmol/L. Serum magnesium levels may appear normal even in
cases of underlying intracellular deficiency, although no known mechanism maintains
a homeostatic level in the blood other than renal excretion of high blood levels.
Intracellular magnesium is correlated with intracellular potassium. Magnesium is
absorbed in the gastrointestinal tract, with more absorbed when status is lower. In
humans, magnesium appears to facilitate calcium absorption. Low and high protein
intake inhibit magnesium absorption, and other factors such as phosphate, phytate,
and fat affect absorption. Absorbed dietary magnesium is largely excreted through
the urine, although most magnesium "administered orally" is excreted through the
feces.[11] Magnesium status may be assessed roughly through serum and
erythrocyte Mg concentrations and urinary and fecal excretion, but intravenous
magnesium loading tests are likely the most accurate and practical in most people.
[12] In these tests, magnesium is injected intravenously; a retention of 20% or more
indicates deficiency.[13] Other nutrient deficiencies are identified through biomarkers,
but none are established for magnesium.[14]
Food sources of magnesium
• Spices, nuts, cereals, coffee, cocoa, tea,
and vegetables (especially green leafy
ones) are rich sources of magnesium.
Observations of reduced dietary
magnesium intake in modern Western
countries as compared to earlier
generations may be related to food
refining and modern fertilizers which
contain no magnesium