Wind power systems

Course 2
Modelling of Wind Turbines
1. Introduction
We look at the Wind Turbine (WT) as one
electrotechnical component among many
others in the entire electrical power systems;


The course is going to focus on:
- the concept of modelling and simulation,
- introduction to aerodynamic modelling of
the WT.

2. Basic considerations regarding modelling and simulation
For WT the time and costs of development can be reduced
considerably and prototype WT can be tested without
exposing physical prototype to the influence of destructive
full-scale test, for instance;
Thats why computer simulations are a very cost effective
way to perform very thorough investigations before a
prototype is exposed to real, full-scale tests;
Computer simulations require a very responsible approach
because the quality of a computer simulation can only be as
good as the quality of the built-in models and of applied
data; otherwise the results may be insufficient and
unreliable;
Computer simulations can be used to study
many different phenomena, however, in order
to take into account all this, it is necessary to
have a general understanding of the WT and
how the various parts of the WT can be
represented in a computer model,
Then, the different types of simulations and
various requirements regarding accuracy will be
discussed in more details.

3. Overview of Aerodynamic Modelling
The modelling of different types of generators,
converters, mechanical shaft systems and
control systems is all well-documented in the
literature,
In the case of WT, an introduction to the basic
physics of the turbine rotor and the various
ways in which the turbine rotor is commonly
represented will be outlined;

3.1. Basic description of the turbine rotor
From a physical point of view, the static
characterisctics of a WT rotor can be
described by the relations between the total
power in the wind P
WIND
and the mechanical
power of the WT P
MECH
.
The incoming wind in the rotor swept area has
a kinetic energy, that is the energy of a
cylinder of air of radius R travelling with speed
v
WIND
. This energy corresponds to a total wind
power:

(Demonstrate the relation above, starting from the kinetic energy of the wind!

AIR
=1.225 kg/m
3
, R-rotor radius, v
WIND
-wind speed)
!!It is not possible to extract all kinetic energy of the
wind since this would mean that the air would stand
still directly behind the WTthis would not allow the
air to flow away from the WT can not represent a
physical steady-state condition.
The wind speed is only reduced by the WT thus
extracts a fraction of the power in the wind = Cp
power efficiency coefficient of the WT.

WIND
v R P
AIR WIND
3 2
2
1
t =

(1)
The theoretical upper limit of Cp=16/27=0.593 59%
of the kinetic energy can be theoretically extracted
from the wind (Betzs limit).
Modern three bladed WT have Cp optim between 0.52
and 0.55 when measured at the hub of the turbine.
! in some cases Cp is specified with respect to the
electrical power at the generator terminals, it means
that the losses in the gear and the generator are
deduced from the Cp valuethen in this case modern
3-bladed WT have Cp = 0.46 - 0.48,
! dont forget that Cp values can be specified either as
mechanical or electrical power efficiency coefficient.
WIND p MECH
P C P =
(2)
turb
MECH
MECH
P
T
e
=
(3)
MECH
T
turb
e
- the mechanical torque [N*m]
- the turbine rotational speed [rad/s]
( ) | e = , ,
WIND turb MECH
v f P
(4)
It is clear from physical point of view that:

where the blade angle [rad].
WIND tip rel
v v v

+ =
; R v
turb tip

e = R v
turb tip
e =

is the angle between the plane of the moving rotor blades and
rel
v

tip
v

is the peripheral speed of the blade

( )
REL tip
v v

, Z =
WIND
turb
v
R e
=
| | 9 ; 8 e
|
|
.
|

\
|
e
=
|
.
|

\
|

=
R
v
turb
WIND
arctan
1
arctan
) , ( | =
p
C p
f C
- the tip-speed ratio is defined as:

C
p
max for
being a highly nonlinear power function of and .
(5)
(6)
(7)
1) =constfixed angular position of the blade
stall (pasive stall) control the turbine blades
will stall (lose power) at high wind speeds and
thus automatically reduce the lift on the
turbines blades.
-there are identical shape curves for different V
WIND
but
varying in terms of stretch along the
turb
axis.
2) being given a WT with rotor radius R, then
( )
WIND turb p
v f C e =
- parameter
Conclusions
The optimal operation point at a given v
WIND
is
determined by tracking the rotor speed to point
opt
:




Observations:
1.
turb,opt
also depends on R increasing the power
it means that
turb,opt
decreases.
2. The fixed-speed wind turbines have to be designed in
order for the
turb
to match the most likely wind speed
in the area of installation (at all other wind speeds the
operation will be at
opt.
3. In case of variable-speed wind turbine,
turb
is
adjusted over a wide range of wind speeds so that
=optCpmax is obtained and P
MECH
,
var>
P
MECH
,
fix
.
At higher v
WIND
P
MECH
=rated level by .


R
v
WIND opt
opt turb

= e
,
(8)
4. variable-speed WT yields greater annual power
production compared with the similar fixed-speed
WTobtained at the cost of greater complexity in the
construction of the unit+ additional losses in the power
electronic converter (responsible for variable-speed
operation).
5. off-shore windconstantthe gain being achieved
primarily in low wind situations, the net result might
even be negative.
6. Some fixed-speed wind turbines can, in a way, be
characterized as variable speed WT. In fact it has two
speeds because of two generators (with different
numbers of pole pairs) or one special generator which
enables the change of the pole pairs by changing the
connections of the stator winding (very simple and
cost-effective measure).
7. At high wind speeds, the P
MECH
P
nom
it is
necessary to reduce P
MECH
and this is
achieved by turning the blades away from
the optimal pitch angle.
There are two posibilities:
I. Out of the wind
II. Up against the wind

I. If the blades are turned-out of the wind, the lift
on the blades is gradually reduced and the
pitch control requires a large change in the
pitch angle to reduce the power significantly.
II. If the blades are turned up against the wind,
the turbine blades will stall (block)
automatically reduce the lift on the turbine
blades. This effect is obtained with a
relatively small change in the pitch angle
and this is called active stall control and
requires more accurate control of the pitch
angle.
3.3 Different representations of the turbine rotor
The most commonly applied ways of
representing a WT in simulation programs are
presented
The representations are based on power P,
torque T or power efficiency coefficient Cp.

3.3.1. Constant power
- The simplest possible representation, P
MECH
=ct
(input data),
- It can be also T
MECH
=ct (input data),but the
model is less accurate.

3.3.2. Functions and polynomial approximations
- There is a way of obtaining a relatively accurate
representation of a WT, using only a few parameters as
input data to the turbine model,
- The advantage of Cp-- representation is that it is a
normalised representation,
- Ex:



where k

, k

,
opt
,
opt
, C
pmax
are the five parameters.

- For the most simple WT (passive-stall, constant speed),
the problem is only two-dimensions, since =ct, so
Cp=f().
- For ct, we have a three-dimensional representation
( ) { } ( ) { }
2 2
max ,
1 1
opt opt p p
k k C C | | =
|
3.3.3. Table representation
- Using Cp-- table, we can have matrix representation,
-this is simple to understand and explain, and the accuracy is
given by a suitable resolution of the matrix. The disadvantage
is given by the big amount of necessary data.

3.3.4. Blade element momentum method and aeroelastic code
- Torque representation is (from physical perspective) the most
natural way to present the model of the turbine rotor.
- BEM = blade element momentum method, is based on a
separation of the blade into a number of sections along the
length of each blade,
- Each blade section is characterized by the blade geometry
(from r=0 to R), then static forces are calculated on the blade
element and Tshaft for a given V
WIND,
, a given
turb ,
, and
given static aerodynamic representation.

- If the characteristic time constants are included, then the
transition processes are also considered.
- if the flexibility of the blade is taking into account, then the
method is called the aeroelastic code.

4. Basic Modelling Block Description of Wind Turbines

- In most cases WT can be represented by a generic model
with six basic block elements and their interconnections:
1. the aerodynamic system,
2. the mechanical system (turbine rotor, shafts, gearbox and
the generator rotor),
3. the generator drive (GE and PEC, if any),
4. the pitch control system,
5. the wind turbine control system,
6. the protection system of the WT.

1. Aerodynamic system
- The aerodynamic system of the WT is the turbine rotor
(blades of the WT),
- In order to provide an overview of the generic model it is
sufficient to express the mechanical power output of a WT
with specific constructional data as a function of rotational
speed, wind speed and blade angle.

2. Mechanical system
- The mechanical system of the WT is the drive train (rotating
masses and the connecting shaft, including a possible gear
system).
- H inertia of turbine and generator rotor, so it can be
represented as a two-mass model with a connecting shaft.


3. Generator drive concept
-covers everything from the shaft and the mains terminals to the power grid;
a) Fixed-speed wind turbines: Types A and B
The generator drive in a fixed-speed wind turbine is only the inductor
generator itself.
a1) in case of the short-circuited rotor (type A WT), the rotational speed is
limited to very narrow range ( determined by the slip s of the IG),
- induction machine models are readily available in most power system
simulation programs.
a2) in case of the IG with variable rotor resistance, speed can be varied
over a somewhat wider range (but still limited), and it can not be controlled
directly.
- from control system perspective, this type of WT must essentially be
considered as a fixed-speed WT;
- the generator drive=model of the IG+ control system (which determines the
instantaneous value of the rotor resistance),
- the vast majority of simulation programs do not contain such models.


b) Variable-speed WT: Types C and D
- Variable speed generator drives enable the WT control system
to adapt
turb
to v
WIND
over a relatively wide speed range,
- The generator drive connects a variable-speed mechanical
system with a fixed frequency electrical system,
- All variable-speed GDs must be able to control the
instantaneous active power output in order to maintain a power
balance in the rotating mechanical system,
- It is also possible to control the reactive power output.
- So, GD needs externally defined reference values for P and Q.
- Type C: double fed IG +partial frequency converter,
- Type D: full scale converter+IG or SG.
4. Pitch servo
- Applies to variable-pitch wind turbines,
- The main control system produces a blade reference angle
ref

and the pitch servo is the actuator (actually turns the turbine
blades to the ordered angle).
- The blades can only be turned within certain physical limits,
- For active stall-controlled wind turbines, the permissible range
will be between -90

and 0

(and even a few degrees on the
positive side).
- For pitched controlled WT, the permissible range will be
between 0

and

90

(or even a few degrees on the negative
side).
- Likewise, there are limitations on the pitch speed, d/dt (the
pitch speed is normaly less then 5

per seconds, although the

pitch speed may exceed 10 per second during emergencies.

5. Main control system
- The exact structure of the main control system is unique for
each type of WT, and even for the same type of the WT, it may
vary according to the individual manufacturer.
- the basic tasks of the control system are the same, to control
the power and the speed of the WT.
- The most significant difference is weather it is a fixed or
variable-speed WT.

5.1. Fixed-speed WT: Types A and B
- For fixed-speed WT, the generator can be considered to be a
passive power-producing component.
- The turbine blade angle is the only controllable quantity in the
entire wind turbine: wind speed, turbine rotor speed and active
power are measured, and the control system optimizes the
blade angle in relation to the incoming wind.
- In high winds, the control system can reduce the power from
the WT, thus keeping the power at the rated maximum power of
the wind turbine,
- In emergency situations, the blade angle control can also be
used for preventive rapid power reduction.
5.2. Variable-speed wind turbines: Types C and D
- in this case the generator is a much more controllable
element,
- in addition to the turbine blade angle, the instantaneous active
and reactive powers output of the generator can be controlled,
- the turbine rotational speed can be adjusted to the optimal
speed as to get the Cpmax (see eq. 8). The system must
contain a speed control system, to determine a reference
speed.
- for dimensioning reasons, the optimal reference speed is
normally cut-off at a minimum and maximum permissible
rotational speed corresponding to low and high wind speed
situations.

- the mechanical power input from the rotating system can be
controlled (at least up to an upper limit determined by the
incoming wind) and that the electrical power emitted through
the generator also can be controlled (at least in normal grid
situations with nominal voltages) this means it is always
possible to control the power balance in the rotating system
and thereby also the speed)!!
- Control strategies may differ depending on the choice made
by the manufacturer:
1. It is possible to construct a single control system that
could work for all wind conditions,
2. Let the blade angle control system control the speed in
high winds, thus leaving it to the power control system
to maintain constant, rated, maximum power.
3. In low and medium wind situations, the power control
system can control the speed, thus leaving it to the
blade angle control system to optimize the blade angle
to the incoming wind, thereby optimizing the power
production.



- Similar to fixed-speed wind turbines, the
blade angle control can also be used for a
preventive rapid power reduction in
emergency situations.
- Reactive power can also be controlled. This
makes it possible to use WT for voltage
control. Currently, this possibility is not made
use of very often. It would seem to be only a
matter of time, though, before the grid code
will require large wind farms to supply such
services.
6. Protection systems and relays
The protection scheme of WT is based on
measurements of various quantities:
voltage, current and rotor speed, including
possible measuring delays and various
relay limits (if these limits are exceeded
more then a permissible period of time,
they will cause the relay to initiate a
protective action, for example
disconnection or preventive power
reduction).