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Mechanical

Actuation Systems
ERT 457 DESIGN OF
AUTOMATION SYSTEMS
Mechanical systems
Devices which can be considered to be motion converters in
that they transform motion from one form to some other
required form.
Eg: Transform linear motion into rotational motion and vice
versa.

Mechanical elements can include the use of linkages, cams,
gears, rack-and-pinion, chains, belt drives, etc.
Eg: rack-and-pinion can be used to convert rotational
motion to linear motion.

Many of the actions which previously were obtained by the
use of mechanism are, however, often nowdays being
obtained, as a result of a mechatronics approach by the use
of microprocessor systems.

Mechanical systems
Mechanisms still, however, have a role in mechatronics
systems. For example, the mechatronics system in use in an
automatic camera for adjusting the aperture for correct
exposures involves a mechanism for adjusting the size of
diaphragm.

Others function:
Force amplification given by levers.
Change of speed given by gears.
Transfer of rotation about one axis to rotation about
another timing belt.

The term kinematics is used for the study of motion without
regard to forces. When we consider just the motions without
any consideration of the forces or energy involved then we
are carrying out a kinematic analysis of the mechanism.

Mechanical systems
Types of Motion



Translation motion Rotational motion
Movement which can be
resolved into components
along one or more of the 3
axes.
Rotation which has
components rotating about
one or more of the axes.
Mechanical systems
Freedom and Constraints
An importance aspect in the design of mechanical
elements is the orientation and arrangement of the
elements and parts.
A body that is free in space can move in three,
independent, mutually perpendicular directions and rotate
in three ways about those directions.






It is said to have six degree of freedom. The number of
degree of freedom is the number of components of motion
that are required in order to generate the motion.


Mechanical systems
Freedom and Constraints
Figure (a) shows a joint with just this one translational
degree of freedom.
Figure (b) shows a joint which has one translational degree
of freedom one rotational degree of freedom.







Kinematic Chains
Each part of a mechanism which has motion relative to some
other part is termed a link.
A rigid body which has two or more points of attachment to
other links is termed nodes.
Each link is capable of moving relative to its neighboring
links.
A joint is a connection between the connected links at their
nodes and which allows some motion between the
connected links.
Levers, cranks, connecting rods and pistons, sliders, pulleys,
belts and shafts are all examples of links.






(a) with two
nodes
(c) with four nodes (b) with three
nodes
Kinematic Chains
A sequence of joints and links
is known as kinematic chain.
For a kinematic chain to
transmit motion, one link must
be fixed. Movement of one link
will then produce predictable
relative movements of the
others.
It is possible to obtain from one
kinematic chain a number of
different mechanisms by
having a different link as the
fixed one.
The design of many
mechanisms are based on two
basic forms of kinematic
chains, the four-bar chain and
the slider-crank chain.






The reciprocating motion of a piston
is transformed into rotational motion
of a crankshaft on bearings mounted
in a fixed frame.
Slider
Crankshaft
Connectin
g rod
Fixed
frame
Kinematic Chains
The Four-bar Chain
Consists of 4 links connected to give 4 joints about which
turning can occur.







Double-lever mechanism Lever-crank mechanism Double-crank mechanism
Kinematic Chains
The Four-bar Chain
Example of a mechanism can be used to advance the film
in a cine camera.
Link 1 rotates, so the end of link 2 lock into a sprocket of
the film, pulls it forward before releasing and moving up
and back to lock into the next sprocket..







Cine film advance mechanism
Kinematic Chains
The Four-bar Chain
Some linkages may have toggle positions. These are
positions where the linkage will not react to any input from
one of its links.
Figure below illustrates such a toggle, being the linkage
used to control the movement of the tailgate of a truck so
that when link 2 reaches the horizontal position no further
load on link 2 will cause any further movement.
There is another toggle position for the linkage and that is
when links 3 and 4 are both vertical and the tailgate is
vertical.







Kinematic Chains
The Slider-crank Mechanism
Consists of a crank, a connecting rod and a slider.







The position sequence for
the links in a slider-crank
mechanism
Cams
Cam is a body which rotates or oscillates and in doing so
imparts a reciprocating motion to a second body called
follower, with which it is in contact.
The length of times spent for the rotation is depending on the
shape of the cam.







Part that lowers the
follower, its profile
determining how
quickly the cam
follower will fall.
Part that allows the
follower to remain at
the same lever for a
significant period of
time and where its
circular with a radius
that does not change.
Part that drives the
follower upwards, its
profile determining
how quickly the cam
follower will lifted.
Cams
The cam shape required to produce a particular motion of
the follower will depend on the shape of the cam and the
type of follower used.







Displacement diagram for an eccentric cam
Cams
Figure below shows the types of follower displacement
diagrams that can be produced with two other different
shaped cams and either point or knife followers.







Heart
shape
Pear
shape
(constant rate,
uniform speed)
(rise and fall
symmetrically)
Cams
Figure below shows a number of examples of different types
of cam followers.







Point
Roller
Knife
Lower friction than
sliding contact but
can be more
expensive
Cams
Figure below shows a number of examples of different types
of cam followers.







Often used
because
cheaper and can
be made smaller
than roller
follower.
Sliding and oscillating Flat Mushroom
Gears
Gear trains are mechanisms which are very widely used to
transfer and transform rotational motion. They are used
when a change in speed or torque of a rotating device is
needed. For example, the car gearbox enables the driver to
match the speed and torque requirements of the terrain with
the engine power available.







(a) Parallel gear axes, (b) axes inclined to one another, (c)
axial teeth, (d) helical teeth, (e) double helical teeth
Gears
Two meshed gears.






Gear ratio,








A = number of teeth on B = dB
B number of teeth on A dA
Angular velocity
Diameter
Gears
Gear trains a series of intermeshed gear wheels.
Simple gear train used for a system where each shaft carries
only one gear wheel.






Ratio of the angular velocities,








G = A = A B
C B C
x
Gears
Compound gears trains two wheels are mounted on a
common shaft.








Ratio of the angular velocities,




For the input and output shafts to be in line, we must also
have for the radii of the gears.




G = A = A B C = A C
D B C D B D
x x x
rA + rB = rD + rC
Gears
Rotational to translational motion two intermeshed
gears with one having a base circle of infinite radius. Such
gear can be used to transform either linear motion to
rotational motion or rotational motion to linear motion.
Eg: The rack-and-pinion.






Linear velocity,













v = nL / t = fL
Time
Distance moved parallel to the screw axis
Revolution
Belt and Chain Drives
Pair of rolling cylinders with the motion of one cylinder
being transferred to the other by a belt.





Belt drives use the friction that develops between the
pulleys attached to the shaft and the belt around the arc
of contact in order to transmit a torque.
The transmitted torque is due to the differences in
tension that occur in the belt during operation. This
difference results in a tight side and a slack side for the
belt.







Belt and Chain Drives
If the tension on the tight side is T1, and a slack side is
T2, then with pulley A as a driver,


Pulley B as a driver,


Since the power transmitted is the produce of the torque
and the angular velocity, and since the angular velocity
is v/rA for pulley A and v/rB for pulley B, then for either
pulley we have




Torque on A = (T1 T2) rA
Power = (T1
T2) v
Torque on B = (T1 T2) rB
Belt and Chain Drives
As a method of transmitting power between two shafts, belt
drives have the advantage that the length of the belt can
easily be adjusted to suit a wide range of shaft to shaft
distance and the system is automatically protected against
overload because slipping occurs if the loading exceeds
the maximum tension that can be sustained by frictional
forces.

If the distance between shafts is large, a belt drive is more
suitable than gears, but over small distances gears are to
be preferred.

Different size pulleys can be used to give a gearing effect.
However, the gear ratio is limited to about 3 because of the
need to maintain an adequate arc of contact between the
belt and pulleys.






Belt and Chain Drives
Figure below shows two types of reversing drives.
With both forms of drive, both side of the belt comes into
contact with the wheels and so V-belts or timing belts
cannot be used.






Cross belt
Open belt
Belt and Chain Drives
Types of belts
Flat.
Has rectangular cross section.
Has an efficiency about 98% and produces little noise.




Round.
Has a circular cross section and is used with grooved pulleys.








Belt and Chain Drives
V
V belts are used with grooved pulleys and are less efficient that
flat belts but a number of them can be used on a single wheel and
so give multiple drive.



Timing.
Require toothed wheels, having teeth which fit into the grooves on
the wheel.
Unlike the other belts, timing belt does not stretch or slip and
consequently transmits power at a constant angular velocity ratio.
The teeth make it possible for the belt to be run at slow or fast
speeds.







Bearings
Whenever there is relative motion of one surface in contact
with another, either by rotating or sliding, the resulting
frictional forces generate heat which wastes energy and
results in wear.

The function of bearing is to guide with minimum friction
and maximum accuracy the movement of one part relative
to another.

Give suitable support to rotating shaft.

The term thrust bearing is used for bearings that are
designed to withstand forces along the axis of a shaft
when the relative motion is primarily rotation.






Bearings
Plain journal bearings
Used to support rotating shafts which are loaded in a radial direction
(journal shaft).
Consists of an insert of some suitable material which is fitted
between the shaft and the support.
Rotation of the shaft results in its surface sliding over that of the
bearing surface.
The bearing may be a dry rubbing bearing or lubrication.






Bearings
Ball and roller bearing
With this type of bearing, the main load is transferred from the
rotating shaft to its support by rolling contact rather than sliding
contact.
A rolling element bearing consists of 4 main elements : an inner
race, an outer race, the rolling element either balls or rollers, and a
cage to keep the rolling elements apart.
The inner and outer races contain hardened tracks in which the
rolling elements roll.






Bearings
Ball and roller bearing
Types of ball bearings.






a) Deep-groove
b) Filling-slot
c) Angular contact
d) double-row
e) Self-aligning
e) Thrust, grooved
race
Bearings
Ball and roller bearing
Types of roller bearings.






a) Straight roller
b) Taper roller
c) Needle roller

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