Responsible Welding Coordinator

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Duties and Responsibilities

Section 1
Responsible Welding Coordinator
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Review of requirements
Technical review
Sub contractor
Welding Personnel
Welding Consumables
Materials
Inspection and testing before welding
Inspection and testing during welding
Inspection and testing after welding
Post weld heat treatment
Non conformance and corrective actions
Calibration and Validation of measuring and inspection equipment
Identification and traceability
Quality records

Main Responsibilities 1.1
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Personal Attributes 1.1
Important qualities that good Inspectors are expected
to have are:
Honesty
Integrity
Knowledge
Good communicator
Physical fitness
Good eyesight
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Standard for Visual Inspection 1.1

Basic Requirements
BS EN 970 - Non-destructive examination of fusion
welds - Visual examination
Welding Inspection Personnel should:
be familiar with relevant standards, rules and specifications
applicable to the fabrication work to be undertaken
be informed about the welding procedures to be used
have good vision (which should be checked every 12
months)
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Welding Inspection 1.2

Conditions for Visual Inspection (to ISO 17637)
Illumination:
350 lux minimum required
(recommends 500 lux - normal shop or office lighting)
Vision Access:
eye should be within 600mm of the surface
viewing angle (line from eye to surface) to be not less than
30
30
600mm
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Aids to Visual Inspection (to BS ISO 17637)

When access is restricted may use:
a mirrored boroscope
a fibre optic viewing system

Other aids:
welding gauges (for checking bevel angles, weld
profile, fillet sizing, undercut depth)
dedicated weld-gap gauges and linear misalignment
(high-low) gauges
straight edges and measuring tapes
magnifying lens (if magnification lens used it
should have magnification between X2 to X5)
usually by
agreement
}
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Welding Inspectors Equipment 1.3
Measuring devices:
flexible tape, steel rule
Temperature indicating crayons
Welding gauges
Voltmeter
Ammeter
Magnifying glass
Torch / flash light
Gas flow-meter
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TWI Multi-purpose Welding Gauge
Misalignment Gauges
Hi-Lo Gauge
Fillet Weld Gauges
G.A.L.
S.T.D.
10mm
16mm
L
G.A.L.
S.T.D.
10mm
16mm
Welding Inspectors Gauges 1.3
0
1/4 1/2 3/4
IN
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2
3
4
5
6
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Tong Tester
Ammeter Voltmeter
Welding Inspectors Equipment 1.3
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Stages of Visual Inspection (to BS ISO 17637)
Extent of examination and when required should be defined in
the application standard or by agreement between the
contracting parties

For high integrity fabrications inspection required throughout
the fabrication process:
Before welding
(Before assemble & After assembly)
During welding
After welding

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Typical Duties of a Welding Inspector 1.5
Before Welding
Preparation:
Familiarisation with relevant documents
Application Standard/Code - for visual acceptance
requirements
Drawings - item details and positions/tolerances etc
Quality Control Procedures - for activities such as material
handling, documentation control, storage & issue of
welding consumables
Quality Plan/Inspection & Test Plan/Inspection Checklist -
details of inspection requirements, inspection procedures
& records required
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Before Welding
Welding Procedures:
are applicable to joints to be welded & approved
are available to welders & inspectors
Welder Qualifications:
list of available qualified welders related to WPSs
certificates are valid and in-date
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Before Welding
Equipment:
all inspection equipment is in good condition &
calibrated as necessary
all safety requirements are understood & necessary
equipment available
Materials:
can be identified & related to test certificates,
traceability !
are of correct dimensions
are in suitable condition (no damage/contamination)
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Before Welding
Consumables:
in accordance with WPSs

are being controlled in accordance with Procedure
Weld Preparations:
comply with WPS/drawing
free from defects & contamination
Welding Equipment:
in good order & calibrated as required by Procedure
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Before Welding
Fit-up
complies with WPS
Number / size of tack welds to Code / good
workmanship
Pre-heat
if specified
minimum temperature complies with WPS

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During Welding
Weather conditions
suitable if site / field welding
Welding Process(es)
in accordance with WPS
Welder
is approved to weld the joint
Pre-heat (if required)
minimum temperature as specified by WPS
maximum interpass temperature as WPS
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During Welding
Welding consumables
in accordance with WPS
in suitable condition
controlled issue and handling
Welding Parameters
current, voltage & travel speed as WPS
Root runs
if possible, visually inspect root before single-sided
welds are filled up
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During Welding
Inter-run cleaning
in accordance with an approved method (& back
gouging) to good workmanship standard
Distortion control
welding is balanced & over-welding is avoided
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After Welding
Weld Identification
identified/numbered as required
is marked with welders identity
Visual Inspection
ensure weld is suitable for all NDT
visually inspect & sentence to Code requirements
Dimensional Survey
ensure dimensions comply with Code/drawing
Other NDT
ensure all NDT is completed & reports available
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After Welding
Repairs
monitor repairs to ensure compliance with Procedure,
ensure NDT after repairs is completed
PWHT
monitor for compliance with Procedure
check chart records confirm Procedure compliance
Pressure / Load Test
ensure test equipment is suitably calibrated
monitor to ensure compliance with Procedure
ensure all records are available
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After Welding
Documentation
ensure any modifications are on as-built drawings
ensure all required documents are available
Collate / file documents for manufacturing records
Sign all documentation and forward it to QC
department.
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Summary of Duties
A Welding Inspector must:
Observe
To observe all relevant actions related to weld quality
throughout production.

Record
To record, or log all production inspection points relevant to
quality, including a final report showing all identified
imperfections

Compare
To compare all recorded information with the acceptance
criteria and any other relevant clauses in the applied
application standard
It is the duty of a Welding Inspector to ensure all the welding and
associated actions are carried out in accordance with the
specification and any applicable procedures.
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Section 2
Terms & Definitions
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Welding Terminology & Definitions 2.1
What is a Weld?

A localised coalescence of metals or non-metals produced
either by heating the materials to the welding temperature,
with or without the application of pressure, or by the
application of pressure alone (AWS)

A permanent union between materials caused by heat, and
or pressure (BS499)

An Autogenous weld:
A weld made with out the use of a filler material and can
only be made by TIG or Oxy-Gas Welding
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Welding Terminology & Definitions 2.1
What is a Joint?

The junction of members or the edges of members
that are to be joined or have been joined (AWS)

A configuration of members (BS499)
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Joint Terminology 2.2
Edge
Open & Closed Corner Lap
Tee Butt
Cruciform
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Welded Butt Joints 2.2
A_________Welded butt joint Butt
A_________Welded butt joint Fillet
A____________Welded butt joint Compound
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A_________Welded T joint Fillet
A_________Welded T joint Butt
A____________Welded T joint Compound
Welded Tee Joints 2.2
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Weld Terminology 2.3
Compound weld
Fillet weld
Butt weld
Edge weld
Spot weld
Plug weld
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Butt Preparations Sizes 2.4
Full Penetration Butt Weld
Partial Penetration Butt Weld
Design Throat
Thickness
Design Throat
Thickness
Actual Throat
Thickness
Actual Throat
Thickness
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Weld
Boundary
C
A
B
D
Heat
Affected
Zone
Root
Weld
metal
A, B, C & D = Weld Toes
Face
Weld Zone Terminology 2.5
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Excess Root
Penetration
Excess
Cap height
or Weld
Reinforcement
Weld Zone Terminology 2.5
Weld cap width
Design
Throat
Thickness
Actual Throat
Thickness
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Heat Affected Zone (HAZ) 2.5
tempered zone
grain growth zone
recrystallised zone
partially transformed zone
Maximum
Temperature
solid-liquid Boundary
solid
weld
metal
unaffected base
material
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Joint Preparation Terminology 2.7
Included angle
Root Gap
Root Face
Angle of
bevel
Root Face
Root Gap
Included angle
Root
Radius
Single-V Butt Single-U Butt
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Joint Preparation Terminology 2.8 & 2.9
Root Gap
Root Face
Root Face
Root Gap
Root
Radius
Single Bevel Butt Single-J Butt
Angle of bevel Angle of bevel
Land
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Single Sided Butt Preparations 2.10
Single Bevel
Single Vee
Single-J Single-U
Single sided preparations are normally made on thinner materials, or
when access form both sides is restricted
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Double Sided Butt Preparations 2.11
Double sided preparations are normally made on thicker materials, or
when access form both sides is unrestricted
-Vee Double
-Bevel Double
- J Double
- U
Double
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Weld Preparation
Terminology & Typical Dimensions: V-Joints
bevel angle
root face
root gap
included angle
Typical Dimensions
bevel angle 30 to 35
root face ~1.5 to ~2.5mm
root gap ~2 to ~4mm
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6 mm
80
Poor Weld Toe Blend Angle
Improved Weld Toe Blend
Angle
20
3 mm
Most codes quote the weld
toes shall blend smoothly
This statement is not
quantitative and therefore
open to individual
interpretation
The higher the toe blend
angle the greater the
amount of stress
concentration
The toe blend angle ideally
should be between 20
o
-30
o
Butt Weld - Toe Blend
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Fillet Weld Features 2.13
Design
Throat
Vertical
Leg
Length
Horizontal leg
Length
Excess
Weld
Metal
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Fillet Weld Throat Thickness 2.13
b
a
b = Actual Throat Thickness
a = Design Throat Thickness
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b
a
b = Actual Throat Thickness
a = Design Throat Thickness
Deep Penetration Fillet Weld Features 2.13
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Fillet Weld Sizes 2.14
Calculating Throat Thickness from a known Leg
Length:

Design Throat Thickness = Leg Length x 0.7

Question: The Leg length is 14mm.
What is the Design Throat?

Answer: 14mm x 0.7 = 10mm Throat Thickness
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Calculating Leg Length from a known Design
Throat Thickness:

Leg Length = Design Throat Thickness x 1.4

Question: The Design Throat is 10mm.
What is the Leg length?

Answer: 10mm x 1.4 = 14mm Leg Length
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Features to Consider 2 2.14
Approximately the same weld volume in both Fillet
Welds, but the effective throat thickness has been
altered, reducing considerably the strength of weld B
Importance of Fillet Weld Leg Length Size
2mm
(b)
4mm
8mm
(a)
4mm
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Area = 4 x 4 =
8mm
2

2
Area = 6 x 6 =
18mm
2

2
The c.s.a. of (b) is over double the area of (a) without the extra
excess weld metal being added
4mm 6mm
(a) (b)
Importance of Fillet weld leg length Size
4mm 6mm
(a) (b)
Excess
Excess
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Mitre Fillet
Convex Fillet
Concave Fillet
A concave profile
is preferred for
joints subjected to
fatigue loading
Fillet Weld Profiles 2.15
Fillet welds - Shape
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EFFECTIVE THROAT THICKNESS
s = Effective throat thickness

s

a

a = Nominal throat thickness

Deep penetration fillet welds from high heat
input welding process MAG, FCAW & SAW etc
Fillet Features to Consider 2.15
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Welding Positions 2.17
PA 1G / 1F Flat / Downhand
PB 2F Horizontal-Vertical
PC 2G Horizontal
PD 4F Horizontal-Vertical (Overhead)
PE 4G Overhead
PF 3G / 5G Vertical-Up
PG 3G / 5G Vertical-Down
H-L045 6G Inclined Pipe (Upwards)
J-L045 6G Inclined Pipe (Downwards)
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Welding Positions 2.17
ISO
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Welding position designation 2.17
Butt welds in plate (see ISO 6947)
Flat - PA Overhead - PE
Vertical
up - PF
Vertical
down - PG
Horizontal - PC
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Butt welds in pipe (see ISO 6947)
Flat - PA
axis: horizontal
pipe: rotated
H-L045
axis: inclined at 45
pipe: fixed
Horizontal - PC
axis: vertical
pipe: fixed
Vertical up - PF
axis: horizontal
pipe: fixed
Vertical down - PG
axis: horizontal
pipe: fixed
J-L045
pipe: fixed
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Fillet welds on plate (see ISO 6947)
Flat - PA Overhead - PD
Vertical up - PF Vertical down - PG
Horizontal - PB
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Fillet welds on pipe (see ISO 6947)
Flat - PA
pipe: rotated
Overhead - PD
axis: vertical
pipe: fixed
Vertical up - PF
axis: horizontal
pipe: fixed
Vertical down - PG
axis: horizontal
pipe: fixed
Horizontal - PB
axis: vertical
pipe: fixed
Horizontal - PB
axis: horizontal
pipe: rotated
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PA / 1G
PA / 1F
PC / 2G
PB / 2F
PD / 4F
PE / 4G PG / 3G
PF / 3G
Plate/Fillet Weld Positions 2.17
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Pipe Welding Positions 2.17
Weld: Flat
Pipe: rotated
Axis: Horizontal
PA / 1G
Weld: Vertical Downwards
Pipe: Fixed
Axis: Horizontal
PG / 5G
Weld: Vertical upwards
Pipe: Fixed
Axis: Horizontal
PF / 5G
Weld: Upwards
Pipe: Fixed
Axis: Inclined
Weld: Horizontal
Pipe: Fixed
Axis: Vertical
PC / 2G
45
o
Weld: Downwards
Pipe: Fixed
Axis: Inclined
J-LO 45 / 6G
45
o
H-LO 45 / 6G
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Travel Speed Measurement 2.18
Definition: the rate of weld progression
measured in case of mechanised and automatic
welding processes
in case of MMA can be determined using ROL and arc
time
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Welding Co-Ordinator
Welding Imperfections
Section 3
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Welding Imperfections 3.1
All welds have imperfections
Imperfections are classed as defects when they are of a
type, or size, not allowed by the Acceptance Standard

A defect is an unacceptable imperfection
A weld imperfection may be allowed by one Acceptance
Standard but be classed as a defect by another Standard
and require removal/rectification
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Standards for Welding Imperfections
BS EN ISO 6520-1(1998) Welding and allied processes
Classification of geometric
imperfections in metallic materials -
Part 1: Fusion welding
Imperfections are classified into 6 groups, namely:
1 Cracks
2 Cavities
3 Solid inclusions
4 Lack of fusion and penetration
5 Imperfect shape and dimensions
6 Miscellaneous imperfections
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Standards for Welding Imperfections
EN ISO 5817 (2003) Welding - Fusion-welded joints in steel,
nickel, titanium and their alloys (beam
welding excluded) - Quality levels for
imperfections
This main imperfections given in EN ISO 6520-1 are listed in
EN ISO 5817 with acceptance criteria at 3 levels, namely
Level B (highest)
Level C (intermediate)
Level D (general)
This Standard is directly applicable to visual testing of welds
...(weld surfaces & macro examination)
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Welding imperfections 3.1
classification
Cracks
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Cracks 3.1
Cracks that may occur in welded materials
are caused generally by many factors and
may be classified by shape and position.

Note: Cracks are classed as Planar
Defects.
Classified by Shape
Longitudinal
Transverse
Chevron
Lamellar Tear
Classified by Position
HAZ
Centerline
Crater
Fusion zone
Parent metal
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Longitudinal parent metal
Longitudinal weld metal
Lamellar tearing
Transverse weld metal
Cracks 3.1
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Transverse crack Longitudinal crack
Cracks 3.1
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Main Crack Types
Solidification Cracks
Hydrogen Induced Cracks
Lamellar Tearing
Reheat cracks
Cracks 3.2
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Solidification Cracking
Occurs during weld solidification process
Steels with high sulphur impurities content (low
ductility at elevated temperature)
Requires high tensile stress
Occur longitudinally down centre of weld
Cracks 3.2
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Cracks 3.3
Hydrogen Induced Cold Cracking
Requires susceptible hard grain structure, stress, low
temperature and hydrogen
Hydrogen enters weld via welding arc mainly as
result of contaminated electrode or preparation
Hydrogen diffuses out into parent metal on cooling
Cracking developing most likely in HAZ
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Lamellar Tearing 3.5
Location: Parent metal
Steel Type: Any steel type possible
Susceptible Microstructure: Poor through thickness
ductility
Lamellar tearing has a step like appearance due to the
solid inclusions in the parent material (e.g. sulphides
and silicates) linking up under the influence of welding
stresses
Low ductile materials in the short transverse direction
containing high levels of impurities are very susceptible
to lamellar tearing
It forms when the welding stresses act in the short
transverse direction of the material (through thickness
direction)

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Gas Cavities 3.6
Root piping
Cluster porosity Gas pore
Blow hole
Herringbone porosity
Gas pore <1.5mm
Blow hole.>1.6mm
Causes:
Loss of gas shield
Damp electrodes
Contamination
Arc length too large
Damaged electrode flux
Moisture on parent material
Welding current too low
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Root piping
Porosity
Gas Cavities 3.7
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Cluster porosity
Herringbone porosity
Gas Cavities 3.8
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Crater pipe
Weld crater
Crater Pipe 3.9
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Crater pipe is a shrinkage defect and not a gas defect, it has
the appearance of a gas pore in the weld crater
Causes:
Too fast a cooling
rate
Deoxidization
reactions and
liquid to solid
volume change
Contamination
Crater cracks
(Star cracks)
Crater pipe
Crater Pipe 3.9
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Solid Inclusions 3.10
Slag inclusions are defined as a non-metallic inclusion
caused by some welding process
Causes:
Slag originates from
welding flux
MAG and TIG welding
process produce silica
inclusions
Slag is caused by
inadequate cleaning
Other inclusions include
tungsten and copper
inclusions from the TIG
and MAG welding process
Slag inclusions
Parallel slag lines
Lack of sidewall
fusion with
associated slag
Lack of interun
fusion + slag
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Elongated slag lines Interpass slag inclusions
Solid Inclusions 3.11
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Typical Causes of Lack of Fusion:
welding current too low
bevel angle too steep
root face too large (single-sided weld)
root gap too small (single-sided weld)
incorrect electrode angle
linear misalignment
welding speed too high
welding process related particularly dip-transfer GMAW
flooding the joint with too much weld metal (blocking Out)
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Lack of Fusion 3.13
Incomplete filled groove +
Lack of sidewall fusion
1
2
1. Lack of sidewall fusion
2. Lack of inter-run fusion
Causes:
Poor welder skill
Incorrect electrode
manipulation
Arc blow
Incorrect welding
current/voltage
Incorrect travel speed
Incorrect inter-run cleaning
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Lack of sidewall fusion + incomplete filled groove
Lack of Fusion 3.13
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Weld Root Imperfections 3.15
Lack of Root Fusion
Lack of Root Penetration
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Cap Undercut 3.18
Intermittent Cap Undercut
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Cap undercut Root undercut
Undercut 3.18
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Surface and Profile 3.19
Incomplete filled groove Poor cap profile
Excessive cap height
Poor cap profiles and
excessive cap reinforcements
may lead to stress
concentration points at the
weld toes and will also
contribute to overall poor toe
blend
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Incomplete filled groove Excess cap reinforcement
Surface and Profile 3.19
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Excessive root
penetration
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Overlap 3.21
An imperfection at the toe or root of a weld caused by metal
flowing on to the surface of the parent metal without fusing to it
Causes:
Contamination
Slow travel speed
Incorrect welding
technique
Current too low
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Overlap 3.21
Toe Overlap
Toe Overlap
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Set-Up Irregularities 3.22
Plate/pipe Linear Misalignment
(Hi-Lo)
Angular Misalignment
Linear misalignment is
measured from the lowest
plate to the highest point.
Angular misalignment is
measured in degrees
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Linear Misalignment
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Linear Misalignment
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Lack of sidewall fusion + incomplete filled groove
Incomplete Groove 3.23
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Concave Root
Causes:
Excessive back purge
pressure during TIG welding
Excessive root bead grinding
before the application of the
second pass
welding current too high for
2nd pass overhead welding
root gap too large - excessive
weaving
A shallow groove, which may occur in the root of a butt weld
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Concave Root
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Concave root Excess root penetration
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Causes:
High Amps/volts
Small Root face
Large Root Gap
Slow Travel
Speed
Burn through
A localized collapse of the weld pool due to excessive
penetration resulting in a hole in the root run
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Burn Through
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Causes:
Loss or insufficient
back purging gas (TIG)
Most commonly occurs
when welding stainless
steels
Purging gases include
argon, helium and
occasionally nitrogen
Oxidized Root (Root Coking)
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Miscellaneous Imperfections 3.26
Arc strike
Causes:
Accidental striking of the
arc onto the parent
material
Faulty electrode holder
Poor cable insulation
Poor return lead
clamping
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Miscellaneous Imperfections 3.27
Causes:
Excessive current
Damp electrodes
Contamination
Incorrect wire feed
speed when welding
with the MAG welding
process
Arc blow
Spatter
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Mechanical Damage 3.28
Mechanical damage can be defined as any surface
material
damage cause during the manufacturing process.
Grinding
Hammering
Chiselling
Chipping
Breaking off welded attachments
(torn surfaces)
Using needle guns to compress
weld capping runs
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Mechanical Damage 3.28
Mechanical Damage/Grinding Mark
Chipping Marks
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Welding Coordinator
Destructive Testing
Section 4
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Qualitative and Quantitative Tests 4.1
The following mechanical tests have units and are termed
quantitative tests to measure Mechanical Properties
Tensile tests (Transverse Welded Joint, All Weld Metal)
Toughness testing (Charpy, Izod, CTOD)
Hardness tests (Brinell, Rockwell, Vickers)

The following mechanical tests have no units and are termed
qualitative tests for assessing joint quality
Macro testing
Bend testing
Fillet weld fracture testing
Butt weld nick-break testing
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Tensile Specimens
Fracture Fillet
Specimen
CTOD Specimen
Charpy Specimen
Bend Test
Specimen
Mechanical Test Samples 4.1
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Destructive Testing 4.1
Typical Positions for Test
Pieces
Specimen Type Position
Macro + Hardness 5
Transverse Tensile 2, 4
Bend Tests 2, 4
Charpy Impact Tests 3
Additional Tests 3
WELDING PROCEDURE QUALIFICATION TESTING
2
3
4
5
top of fixed pipe
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Malleability
Ductility
Toughness
Hardness
Tensile Strength

Ability of a material to
withstand deformation
under static compressive
loading without rupture
Definitions
Mechanical Properties of metals are related to the amount of
deformation which metals can withstand under different
circumstances of force application.
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Malleability
Ductility
Toughness
Hardness
Tensile Strength

Ability of a material
undergo plastic
deformation under static
tensile loading without
rupture. Measurable
elongation and reduction
in cross section area
Definitions
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Malleability
Ductility
Toughness
Hardness
Tensile Strength

Ability of a material to
withstand bending or the
application of shear
stresses by impact loading
without fracture.
Definitions
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Malleability
Ductility
Toughness
Hardness
Tensile Strength
Measurement of a
materials surface
resistance to indentation
from another material by
static load
Definitions
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Malleability
Ductility
Toughness
Hardness
Tensile Strength

Measurement of the
maximum force required to
fracture a materials bar of
unit cross-sectional area in
tension
Definitions
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Transverse Joint Tensile Test 4.2
Weld on plate
Multiple cross joint
specimens
Weld on pipe
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All-Weld Metal Tensile
Specimen
Transverse Tensile
Specimen
Tensile Test 4.3
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STRA (Short Transverse Reduction Area)
For materials that may be subject to Lamellar Tearing

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UTS Tensile test 4.4
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Charpy V-Notch Impact Test 4.5
Objectives:
measuring impact strength in different weld joint areas
assessing resistance toward brittle fracture
Information to be supplied on the test report:
Material type
Notch type
Specimen size
Test temperature
Notch location
Impact Strength Value
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- 50 0 - 20 - 10 - 40 - 30
Ductile fracture
Ductile/Brittle
transition
point
47 Joules
28 Joules
Testing temperature - Degrees Centigrade
Temperature range
Transition range
Brittle fracture
Ductile / Brittle Transition Curve 4.6
Three specimens are normally tested at each temperature
Energy absorbed
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Impact Energy Joules
Room Temperature -20
o
C Temperature
1. 197 Joules
2. 191 Joules
3. 186 Joules
1. 49 Joules
2. 53 Joules
3. 51 Joules
Average = 191 Joules Average = 51 Joules
The test results show the specimens carried out at room
temperature absorb more energy than the specimens carried
out at -20
o
C
Comparison Charpy Impact Test Results 4.6
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Charpy V-notch impact test specimen 4.7
Specimen dimensions according ASTM E23
ASTM: American Society of Testing Materials
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Charpy V-Notch Impact Test 4.8
Specime
n
Pendulu
m
(striker)
Anvil (support)
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10 mm
8

m
m

2

m
m

22.5
o

Machined
notch
100% Ductile
Machined
notch
Large reduction
in area, shear
lips
Fracture surface
100% bright
crystalline brittle
fracture
Randomly torn,
dull gray fracture
surface
Charpy Impact Test 4.9
100% Brittle
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Hardness Testing 4.10
Definition
Measurement of resistance of a material against
penetration of an indenter under a constant load
There is a direct correlation between UTS and
hardness
Hardness tests:
Brinell
Vickers
Rockwell
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Objectives:
measuring hardness in different areas of a welded joint
assessing resistance toward brittle fracture, cold cracking
and corrosion sensitivity within a H
2
S (Hydrogen Sulphide)
environment.
Information to be supplied on the test report:
material type
location of indentation
type of hardness test and load applied on the indenter
hardness value
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Vickers hardness tests:
indentation body is a square based diamond pyramid
(136 included angle)
the average diagonal (d) of the impression is
converted to a hardness number from a table
it is measured in HV5, HV10 or HV025
Adjustable
shutters Indentation Diamond
indentor
Vickers Hardness Test 4.11
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Vickers Hardness Test Machine 4.11
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Hardened steel ball of given diameter is subjected for
a given time to a given load
Load divided by area of indentation gives Brinell
hardness in kg/mm
2

More suitable for on site hardness testing
Brinell Hardness Test 4.11
30KN
=10mm
steel ball
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Rockwell Hardness Test
1KN
=1.6mm
steel ball
Rockwell B Rockwell C
1.5KN
120Diamond
Cone
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Hardness Test Methods Typical Designations
Vickers 240 HV10
Rockwell Rc 22
Brinell 200 BHN-W
usually the hardest region
1.5 to 3mm
HAZ
fusion line
or
fusion
boundary
Hardness specimens can also be used for CTOD samples
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Crack Tip Opening Displacement testing 4.12
Test is for fracture toughness
Square bar machined with a notch placed
in the centre.
Tested below ambient temperature at a
specified temperature.
Load is applied at either end of the test
specimen in an attempt to open a crack at
the bottom of the notch
Normally 3 samples
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Location: Any stress concentration area

Steel Type: All steel types

Susceptible Microstructure: All grain structures

Test for Fracture Toughness is CTOD
(Crack Tip Opening Displacement)
Fatigue Fracture 4.13
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Fatigue cracks occur under cyclic stress conditions
Fracture normally occurs at a change in section, notch
and weld defects i.e stress concentration area
All materials are susceptible to fatigue cracking
Fatigue cracking starts at a specific point referred to as
a initiation point
The fracture surface is smooth in appearance
sometimes displaying beach markings
The final mode of failure may be brittle or ductile or a
combination of both
Fatigue Fracture 4.13
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Toe grinding, profile grinding.
The elimination of poor profiles
The elimination of partial penetration welds and weld
defects
Operating conditions under the materials endurance limits
The elimination of notch effects e.g. mechanical damage
cap/root undercut
The selection of the correct material for the service
conditions of the component
Precautions against Fatigue Cracks
Fatigue Fracture
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Fatigue fracture occurs in structures subject to repeated
application of tensile stress.
Crack growth is slow (in same cases, crack may grow
into an area of low stress and stop without failure).
Fatigue Fracture
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Initiation points / weld defects
Fatigue fracture surface
smooth in appearance
Secondary mode of failure
ductile fracture rough fibrous
appearance
Fatigue Fracture
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Crack growth is slow
It initiate from stress concentration points
load is considerably below the design or yield stress level
The surface is smooth
The surface is bounded by a curve
Bands may sometimes be seen on the smooth surface
beachmarks. They show the progress of the crack front from the
point of origin
The surface is 90 to the load
Final fracture will usually take the form of gross yielding (as the
maximum stress in the remaining ligament increase!)
Fatigue crack need initiation + propagation periods
Fatigue Fracture
Fatigue fracture distinguish features:
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Object of test:
To determine the soundness of the weld zone. Bend
testing can also be used to give an assessment of
weld zone ductility.
There are three ways to perform a bend test:
Root bend
Face bend
Side bend
Side bend tests are normally carried out on welds over 12mm in thickness
Bend Tests 4.15
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Bending test 4.16
Types of bend test for welds (acc. BS EN 910):
Thickness of material - t
t up to 12 mm
t over 12 mm
Root / face
bend
Side bend
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Fillet Weld Fracture Tests 4.17
Object of test:
To break open the joint through the weld to permit
examination of the fracture surfaces
Specimens are cut to the required length
A saw cut approximately 2mm in depth is applied
along the fillet welds length
Fracture is usually made by striking the specimen
with a single hammer blow
Visual inspection for defects
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Fracture should break weld saw cut to root
2mm
Notch
Hammer
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This fracture indicates
lack of fusion
This fracture has
occurred saw cut to root
Lack of Penetration
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Nick-Break Test 4.18
Object of test:
To permit evaluation of any weld defects across
the fracture surface of a butt weld.
Specimens are cut transverse to the weld
A saw cut approximately 2mm in depth is applied
along the welds root and cap
Fracture is usually made by striking the specimen with
a single hammer blow
Visual inspection for defects
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Approximately 230 mm
19 mm
2 mm
2 mm
Notch cut by hacksaw
Weld reinforcement
may or may not be
removed
Nick-Break Test 4.18
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Nick Break Test 4.18
Inclusions on fracture
line
Lack of root penetration
or fusion
Alternative nick-break test
specimen, notch applied all
way around the specimen
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We test welds to establish minimum levels of mechanical
properties, and soundness of the welded joint
We divide tests into Qualitative & Quantitative methods:
Qualitative: (Have no units/numbers)
For assessing joint quality
Macro tests
Bend tests
Fillet weld fracture tests
Butt Nick break tests
Quantitative: (Have units/numbers)
To measure mechanical properties
Hardness (VPN & BHN)
Toughness (Joules & ft.lbs)
Strength (N/mm
2
& PSI, MPa)
Ductility / Elongation (E%)
Summary of Mechanical Testing 4.19
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Welding Coordinator
WPS Welder Qualifications
Section 5
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Welding Procedure Qualification 5.1
Question:
What is the main reason for carrying out a Welding Procedure
Qualification Test ?
(What is the test trying to show ?)
Answer:
To show that the welded joint has the properties* that satisfy
the design requirements (fit for purpose)

* properties
mechanical properties are the main interest - always strength but
toughness & hardness may be important for some applications
test also demonstrates that the weld can be made without defects
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Welding Procedures 5.1
Producing a welding procedure involves:
Planning the tasks
Collecting the data
Writing a procedure for use of for trial
Making a test welds
Evaluating the results
Approving the procedure
Preparing the documentation
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In most codes reference is made to how the procedure are to
be devised and whether approval of these procedures is
required.
The approach used for procedure approval depends on the
code:
Example codes:
AWS D.1.1: Structural Steel Welding Code
BS 2633: Class 1 welding of Steel Pipe Work
API 1104: Welding of Pipelines
BS 4515: Welding of Pipelines over 7 Bar
Other codes may not specifically deal with the requirement of
a procedure but may contain information that may be used in
writing a weld procedure
EN 1011Process of Arc Welding Steels
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The welding engineer writes qualified Welding Procedure
Specifications (WPS) for production welding
Production welding conditions must remain within the range of
qualification allowed by the WPQR
(according to EN ISO 15614)
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(according to EN Standards)
welding conditions are called welding variables
welding variables are classified by the EN ISO Standard as:
Essential variables
Non-essential variables
Additional variables
Note: additional variables = ASME supplementary essential
The range of qualification for production welding is based on
the limits that the EN ISO Standard specifies for essential
variables*
(* and when applicable - the additional variables)
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WELDING ESSENTIAL VARIABLES
Question:
Why are some welding variables classified as essential ?
Answer:
A variable, that if changed beyond certain limits (specified by
the Welding Standard) may have a significant effect on the
properties* of the joint
* particularly joint strength and ductility
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SOME TYPICAL ESSENTIAL VARIABLES
Welding Process
Post Weld Heat Treatment (PWHT)
Material Type
Electrode Type, Filler Wire Type (Classification)
Material Thickness
Polarity (AC, DC+ve / DC-ve)
Pre-Heat Temperature
Heat Input
Welding Position
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Components of a welding procedure
Parent material
Type (Grouping)
Thickness
Diameter (Pipes)
Surface condition)
Welding process
Type of process (MMA, MAG, TIG, SAW etc)
Equipment parameters
Amps, Volts, Travel speed
Welding Consumables
Type of consumable/diameter of consumable
Brand/classification
Heat treatments/ storage
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Components of a welding procedure
Joint design
Edge preparation
Root gap, root face
Jigging and tacking
Type of baking
Welding Position
Location, shop or site
Welding position e.g. 1G, 2G, 3G etc
Any weather precaution
Thermal heat treatments
Preheat, temps
Post weld heat treatments e.g. stress relieving
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Object of a welding procedure test
To give maximum confidence that the welds mechanical
and metallurgical properties meet the requirements of the
applicable code/specification.
Each welding procedure will show a range to which the
procedure is approved (extent of approval)
If a customer queries the approval evidence can be
supplied to prove its validity
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Summary of designations:
pWPS: Preliminary Welding Procedure Specification
(Before procedure approval)
WPAR (WPQR): Welding Procedure Approval Record
(Welding procedure Qualification record)
WPS: Welding Procedure Specification
(After procedure approval)

Welding Procedures
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Example:
Welding
Procedure
Specification
(WPS)
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Numerous codes and standards deal with welder qualification,
e.g. BS EN ISO 9606 PT-1 2013
Once the content of the procedure is approved the next
stage is to approve the welders to the approved procedure.
A welders test know as a Welders Qualification Test (WQT).
Object of a welding qualification test:
To give maximum confidence that the welder meets the
quality requirements of the approved procedure (WPS).
The test weld should be carried out on the same material and
same conditions as for the production welds.
Welder Qualification 5.4
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Welder Qualification 5.4 & 5.5
Question:
What is the main reason for qualifying a welder ?

Answer:
To show that he has the skill to be able to make production
welds that are free from defects
Note: when welding in accordance with a Qualified WPS
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The welder is allowed to make production welds within the
range of qualification shown on the Certificate
The range of qualification allowed for production welding is
based on the limits that the EN Standard specifies for the
welder qualification essential variables
(according to EN 9606 )
A Certificate may be withdrawn by the Employer if there is
reason to doubt the ability of the welder, for example
a high repair rate
not working in accordance with a qualified WPS

The qualification shall remain valid for 2 years provided there is certified
confirmation of welding to the WPS in that time.
A Welders Qualification Certificate automatically expires if the welder has not
used the welding process for 6 months or longer.
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Welding Engineer writes a preliminary Welding Procedure
Specification (pWPS) for each test weld to be made
A welder makes a test weld in accordance with the pWPS

A welding inspector records all the welding conditions used
for the test weld (referred to as the as-run conditions)

An Independent Examiner/ Examining Body/ Third Party
inspector may be requested to monitor the qualification
process

The finished test weld is subjected to NDT in accordance with
the methods specified by the EN ISO Standard - Visual, MT or
PT & RT or UT
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Test weld is subjected to destructive testing (tensile, bend,
macro)
The Application Standard, or Client, may require additional
tests such as impact tests, hardness tests (and for some
materials - corrosion tests)
A Welding Procedure Qualification Record (WPQR) is prepared
giving details of: -
The welding conditions used for the test weld
Results of the NDT
Results of the destructive tests
The welding conditions that the test weld allows for
production welding
The Third Party may be requested to sign the WPQR as a true
record
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An approved WPS should be available covering the range of
qualification required for the welder approval.
The welder qualifies in accordance with an approved WPS

A welding inspector monitors the welding to make sure that the
welder uses the conditions specified by the WPS

EN Welding Standard states that an Independent Examiner,
Examining Body or Third Party Inspector may be required to
monitor the qualification process

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The finished test weld is subjected to NDT by the methods
specified by the EN Standard - Visual, MT or PT & RT or UT
The test weld may need to be destructively tested - for certain
materials and/or welding processes specified by the EN
Standard or the Client Specification
A Welders Qualification Certificate is prepared showing the
conditions used for the test weld and the range of qualification
allowed by the EN Standard for production welding
The Qualification Certificate is usually endorsed by a Third
Party Inspector as a true record of the test
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Information that should be included on a welders test certificate are,
which the welder should have or have access to a copy of !

Welders name and identification number
Date of test and expiry date of certificate
Standard/code e.g. BS EN 9606
Test piece details
Welding process.
Welding parameters, amps, volts
Consumables, flux type and filler classification details
Sketch of run sequence
Welding positions
Joint configuration details
Material type qualified, pipe diameter etc
Test results, remarks
Test location and witnessed by
Extent (range) of approval
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Welding Coordinator
Materials Inspection
Section 6
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Material Inspection
One of the most important items to consider is Traceability.
The materials are of little use if we can not, by use of an
effective QA system trace them from specification and
purchase order to final documentation package handed over to
the Client.
All materials arriving on site should be inspected for:
Size / dimensions
Condition
Type / specification
In addition other elements may need to be considered
depending on the materials form or shape
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We inspect the condition
(Corrosion, Damage, Wall thickness Ovality, Laminations & Seam)
Specification
Welded
seam
Size
LP5
Pipe Inspection
Other checks may need to be made such as: distortion tolerance,
number of plates and storage.
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Size
We inspect the condition
(Corrosion, Mechanical damage, Laps, Bands &
Laminations)
5L
Specification
Other checks may need to be made such as: distortion
tolerance, number of plates and storage.
Plate Inspection
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Parent Material Imperfections
Lamination
Mechanical damage
Lap
Segregation line
Laminations are caused in the parent plate by the steel making
process, originating from ingot casting defects.
Segregation bands occur in the centre of the plate and are low
melting point impurities such as sulphur and phosphorous.
Laps are caused during rolling when overlapping metal does not
fuse to the base material.
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Lapping
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Lamination
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Laminations
Plate Lamination
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Welding Coordinator
Codes & Standards
Section 7
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Codes & Standards
The 3 agencies generally identified in a code or standard:
The customer, or client
The manufacturer, or contractor
The 3
rd
party inspection, or clients representative

Codes often do not contain all relevant data, but may
refer to other standards
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Standard/Codes/Specifications
STANDARDS
SPECIFICATIONS CODES
Examples
plate, pipe
forgings, castings
valves
electrodes

Examples
pressure vessels
bridges
pipelines
tanks
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Welding Coordinator
Welding Symbols
Section 8
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Advantages of symbolic representation:
simple and quick plotting on the drawing
does not over-burden the drawing
no need for additional view
gives all necessary indications regarding the specific
joint to be obtained

Disadvantages of symbolic representation:
used only for usual joints
requires training for properly understanding of symbols
Weld symbols on drawings
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The symbolic representation includes:
an arrow line
a reference line
an elementary symbol
The elementary symbol may be completed by:
a supplementary symbol
a means of showing dimensions
some complementary indications
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In most standards the cross sectional dimensions are given to
the left side of the symbol, and all linear dimensions are give on
the right side
Dimensions
Convention of dimensions
a = Design throat thickness
s = Depth of Penetration, Throat thickness
z = Leg length (min material thickness)
BS EN ISO 22553
AWS A2.4
In a fillet weld, the size of the weld is the leg length
In a butt weld, the size of the weld is based on the depth of the
joint preparation
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A method of transferring information from the
design office to the workshop is:
The above information does not tell us much about the wishes
of the designer. We obviously need some sort of code which
would be understood by everyone.
Most countries have their own standards for symbols.
Some of them are AWS A2.4 & BS EN 22553 (ISO 2553)
Please weld
here
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Joints in drawings may be indicated:
by detailed sketches, showing every dimension
by symbolic representation
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Elementary Welding Symbols
(BS EN ISO 22553 & AWS A2.4)
Convention of the elementary symbols:
Various categories of joints are characterised by an elementary
symbol.
The vertical line in the symbols for a fillet weld, single/double bevel
butts and a J-butt welds must always be on the left side.
Square edge
butt weld
Weld type Sketch Symbol
Single-v
butt weld
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Single-V butt
weld with broad
root face
Weld type Sketch Symbol
Single
bevel butt
weld
Single bevel
butt weld with
broad root
face
Backing run
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Single-U
butt weld
Weld type
Sketch
Symbol
Single-J
butt weld
Fillet weld
Surfacing
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Plug weld
Resistance spot weld
Resistance seam weld
Square Butt weld
Steep flanked
Single-V Butt
Surfacing
ISO 2553 / BS EN 22553
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Arrow Line
(BS EN ISO 22553 & AWS A2.4):
Convention of the arrow line:
Shall touch the joint intersection
Shall not be parallel to the drawing
Shall point towards a single plate preparation (when only
one plate has preparation)
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(AWS A2.4)
Convention of the reference line:
Shall touch the arrow line
Shall be parallel to the bottom of the drawing

Reference Line
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or
Reference Line
(BS EN ISO 22553)
Convention of the reference line:
Shall touch the arrow line
Shall be parallel to the bottom of the drawing
There shall be a further broken identification line above or
beneath the reference line (Not necessary where the weld
is symmetrical!)
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(BS EN ISO 22553 & AWS A2.4)
Convention of the double side weld symbols:
Representation of welds done from both sides of the joint
intersection, touched by the arrow head
Fillet weld
Double V
Double bevel
Double U
Double J
Double side weld symbols
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Arrow line
Reference lines
Arrow side
Other side
Arrow side
Other side
ISO 2553 / BS EN 22553
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Single-V Butt flush cap
Single-U Butt with sealing run
Single-V Butt with
permanent backing strip
M
Single-U Butt with
removable backing strip
M R
ISO 2553 / BS EN 22553
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Single-bevel butt Double-bevel butt
Single-bevel butt Single-J butt
ISO 2553 / BS EN 22553
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Partial penetration single-V butt
S indicates the depth of penetration
s10
10
15
ISO 2553 / BS EN 22553
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s = Depth of Penetration, Throat
thickness
z = Leg length(min material thickness)
a = (0.7 x z)
a 4
4mm Design throat
z 6
6mm leg
a
z
s
s 6
6mm Actual throat
ISO 2553 / BS EN 22553
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ISO 2553 / BS EN 22553
Arrow side
Arrow side
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Other side
ISO 2553 / BS EN 22553
Other side
s6
s6
6mm fillet weld
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n = number of weld elements
l = length of each weld element
(e) = distance between each weld element
n x l (e)
Welds to be
staggered
Process
2 x 40 (50)
3 x 40 (50)
111
ISO 2553 / BS EN 22553
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80 80 80
90 90 90
6
6
5
5
z5
z6
3 x 80 (90)
3 x 80 (90)
ISO 2553 / BS EN 22553
All dimensions in mm
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ISO 2553 / BS EN 22553
All dimensions in mm
8
8
6
6
80 80 80
90
90
90
z8
z6
3 x 80 (90)
3 x 80 (90)
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Supplementary symbols
Concave or Convex
Toes to be ground smoothly
(BS EN only)
Site Weld
Weld all round
(BS EN ISO 22553 & AWS A2.4)
Convention of supplementary symbols
Supplementary information such as welding process, weld
profile, NDT and any special instructions
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Supplementary symbols
Further supplementary information, such as WPS number, or
NDT may be placed in the fish tail
Ground flush
111
Welding process
numerical BS EN
MR
Removable
backing strip
Permanent
backing strip
M
(BS EN ISO 22553 & AWS A2.4)
Convention of supplementary symbols
Supplementary information such as welding process, weld profile,
NDT and any special instructions
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b
a
d c
ISO 2553 / BS EN 22553
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Convex
Mitre
Toes
shall be
blended
ISO 2553 / BS EN 22553
Concave
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s = Depth of Penetration, Throat
thickness
z = Leg length(min material thickness)
a = (0.7 x z)
a 4
4mm Design throat
z 6
6mm leg
a
z
s
s 6
6mm Actual throat
ISO 2553 / BS EN 22553
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Field weld (site weld)
The component requires
NDT inspection
WPS
Additional information,
the reference document
is included in the box
Welding to be carried out
all round component
(peripheral weld)
ISO 2553 / BS EN 22553
Complimentary Symbols
NDT
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Numerical Values for Welding Processes:
111: MMA welding with covered electrode
121: Sub-arc welding with wire electrode
131: MIG welding with inert gas shield
135: MAG welding with non-inert gas shield
136: Flux core arc welding
141: TIG welding
311: Oxy-acetylene welding
72: Electro-slag welding
15: Plasma arc welding
ISO 2553 / BS EN 22553
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AWS A2.4 Welding Symbols
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1 (1-1/8)
60
o

1/8
Depth of
Bevel
Effective
Throat
Root Opening
Groove Angle
AWS Welding Symbols
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1 (1-1/8)
60
o

1/8
GSFCAW
Welding Process
GMAW
GTAW
SAW
AWS Welding Symbols
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3 10
3 10
Welds to be
staggered
SMAW
Process
10
3
3
AWS Welding Symbols
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1 (1-1/8)
60
o

1/8
FCAW
Sequence of
Operations
1st Operation
2nd Operation
3rd Operation
AWS Welding Symbols
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1 (1-1/8)
60
o

1/8
FCAW
Sequence of
Operations
RT
MT
MT
AWS Welding Symbols
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Dimensions- Leg Length
6/8
6 leg on member A
8
6
Member A
Member B
AWS Welding Symbols
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Welding Coordinator
Intro To Welding Processes
Section 9
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Welding is regarded as a joining process in which the work
pieces are in atomic contact
Pressure welding
Forge welding
Friction welding
Resistance Welding
Fusion welding
Oxy-acetylene
MMA (SMAW)
MIG/MAG (GMAW)
TIG (GTAW)
Sub-arc (SAW)
Electro-slag (ESW)
Laser Beam (LBW)
Electron-Beam (EBW)
Welding Processes
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20 80 40 60 130 140 120 100 180 160 200
10
60
50
40
30
20
80
70
90
100
Normal Operating
Voltage Range
Large voltage variation, e.g. +
10v (due to changes in arc
length)
Small amperage change
resulting in virtually constant
current e.g. + 5A.
V
o
l
t
a
g
e

Amperage
Required for: MMA, TIG, Plasma
arc and SAW > 1000 AMPS
O.C.V. Striking voltage (typical) for
arc initiation
Constant Current Power Source
(Drooping Characteristic)
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Monitoring Heat Input
Heat Input:
The amount of heat generated in the
welding arc per unit length of weld.
Expressed in kilo Joules per millimetre
length of weld (kJ/mm).

Heat Input (kJ/mm)= Volts x Amps
Travel speed(mm/s) x 1000
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Weld and weld pool temperatures
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May 9, 2014 230 of 691
Monitoring Heat Input As Required by
BS EN ISO 15614-1:2004+A2:2012
In accordance with EN 1011-1:1998
When impact requirements and/or hardness requirements are
specified, impact test shall be taken from the weld in the highest
heat input position and hardness tests shall be taken from the
weld in the lowest heat input position in order to qualify for all
positions

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Welding Coordinator
MMA Welding
Section 10
May 9, 2014 233 of 691
MMA - Principle of operation
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MMA welding
Main features:
Shielding provided by decomposition of flux covering
Electrode consumable
Manual process

Welder controls:
Arc length
Angle of electrode
Speed of travel
Amperage settings
May 9, 2014 235 of 691
Power source
Holding oven
Inverter power
source
Electrode holder
Power cables
Welding visor
filter glass
Return lead
Electrodes
Electrode
oven
Control panel
(amps, volts)
Manual Metal Arc Basic Equipment
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Transformer:
Changes mains supply voltage to a voltage suitable for welding.
Has no moving parts and is often termed static plant.
Rectifier:
Changes a.c. to d.c., can be mechanically or statically achieved.
Generator:
Produces welding current. The generator consists of an armature
rotating in a magnetic field, the armature must be rotated at a
constant speed either by a motor unit or, in the absence of
electrical power, by an internal combustion engine.
Inverter:
An inverter changes d.c. to a.c. at a higher frequency.
MMA Welding Plant
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Voltage
The arc voltage in the MMA process is measured as close to
the arc as possible. It is variable with a change in arc length
O.C.V.
The open circuit voltage is the voltage required to initiate, or
re-ignite the electrical arc and will change with the type of
electrode being used e.g 70-90 volts
Current
The current used will be determined by the choice of
electrode, electrode diameter and material type and
thickness. Current has the most effect on penetration.
Polarity
Polarity is generally determined by operation and electrode
type e.g DC +ve, DC ve or AC
MMA Welding Variables
May 9, 2014 239 of 691
20 80 40 60 130 140 120 100 180 160 200
10
60
50
40
30
20
80
70
90
100
Normal Operating
Voltage Range
Large voltage variation, e.g. +
10v (due to changes in arc
length)
Small amperage change
resulting in virtually constant
current e.g. + 5A.
V
o
l
t
a
g
e

Amperage
O.C.V. Striking voltage (typical) for arc
initiation
Constant Current Power Source
(Drooping Characteristic)
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MMA welding parameters
Travel speed
Travel
speed
Too high Too low
wide weld bead contour
lack of penetration
burn-through
lack of root fusion
incomplete root
penetration
undercut
poor bead profile,
difficult slag removal
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Type of current:
voltage drop in welding cables is lower with AC
inductive looses can appear with AC if cables are coiled
cheaper power source for AC
no problems with arc blow with AC
DC provides a more stable and easy to strike arc,
especially with low current, better positional weld, thin
sheet applications
welding with a short arc length (low arc voltage) is easier
with DC, better mechanical properties
DC provides a smoother metal transfer, less spatter
May 9, 2014 242 of 691
Welding current
approx. 35 A/mm of diameter
governed by thickness, type of joint and welding
position
Welding
current
Too high Too low
poor starting
slag inclusions
weld bead contour too
high
lack of
fusion/penetration
spatter
excess
penetration
undercut
burn-through
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Arc length = arc voltage
Arc
voltage
Too high Too low
arc can be extinguished
stubbing
spatter
porosity
excess
penetration
undercut
burn-through
Polarity: DCEP generally gives deeper penetration
May 9, 2014 244 of 691
MMA - Troubleshooting
MMA quality (left to right)
current, arc length and travel speed normal;
current too low;
current too high;
arc length too short;
arc length too long;
travel speed too slow;
travel speed too high
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MMA electrode holder
Collet or twist type
Tongs type with
spring-loaded jaws
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The three main electrode covering types used in MMA welding
Cellulosic - deep penetration/fusion
Rutile - general purpose
Basic - low hydrogen
(Covered in more detail in Section 14)

MMA Welding Consumables
MMA Covered Electrodes
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Most welding defects in MMA are caused by a lack of welder
skill (not an easily controlled process), the incorrect settings
of the equipment, or the incorrect use, and treatment of
electrodes
Typical Welding Defects:
Slag inclusions
Arc strikes
Porosity
Undercut
Shape defects (overlap, excessive root penetration, etc.)
MMA welding typical defects
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Advantages:
Field or shop use
Range of consumables
All positions
Portable
Simple equipment
Disadvantages:
High welder skill required
High levels of fume
Hydrogen control (flux)
Stop/start problems
Comparatively uneconomic when compared with some
other processes i.e MAG, SAW and FCAW
Manual Metal Arc Welding (MMA)
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Welding Coordinator
TIG Welding
Section 11
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The TIG welding process was first developed in the USA
during the 2
nd
world war for the welding of aluminum alloys
The process uses a non-consumable tungsten electrode
The process requires a high level of welder skill
The process produces very high quality welds.
The TIG process is considered as a slow process compared
to other arc welding processes
The arc may be initiated by a high frequency to avoid scratch
starting, which could cause contamination of the tungsten
and weld
Tungsten Inert Gas Welding
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TIG - Principle of operation
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Voltage
The voltage of the TIG welding process is variable only by the
type of gas being used, and changes in the arc length
Current
The current is adjusted proportionally to the tungsten
electrodes diameter being used. The higher the current the
deeper the penetration and fusion
Polarity
The polarity used for steels is always DC ve as most of the
heat is concentrated at the +ve pole, this is required to keep
the tungsten electrode at the cool end of the arc. When
welding aluminium and its alloys AC current is used
TIG Welding Variables
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Types of current
can be DCEN or DCEP
DCEN gives deep penetration
requires special power source
low frequency - up to 20
pulses/sec (thermal pulsing)
better weld pool control
weld pool partially solidifies
between pulses
Type of
welding
current
can be sine or square wave
requires a HF current (continuos
or periodical)
provide cleaning action
DC
AC
Pulsed
current
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Choosing the proper electrode
Current type influence
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
Electrode capacity
Current type & polarity
Heat balance
Oxide cleaning action
Penetration
DCEN DCEP AC (balanced)
70% at work
30% at electrode
50% at work
50% at electrode
35% at work
65% at electrode
Deep, narrow Medium Shallow, wide
No Yes - every half cycle Yes
Excellent
(e.g. 3,2 mm/400A)
Good
(e.g. 3,2 mm/225A)
Poor
(e.g. 6,4 mm/120A)
May 9, 2014 258 of 691
ARC CHARACTERISTICS
Volts
Amps
OCV
Constant Current/Amperage Characteristic
Large change in voltage =
Smaller change in amperage
Welding Voltage
Large arc gap
Small arc
gap
May 9, 2014 259 of 691
TIG - arc initiation methods
simple method
tungsten electrode is in contact
with the workpiece!
high initial arc current due to
the short circuit
impractical to set arc length in
advance
electrode should tap the
workpiece - no scratch!
ineffective in case of AC
used when a high quality is not
essential
Arc initiation
method
Lift arc HF start
need a HF generator (spark-
gap oscillator) that generates a
high voltage AC output (radio
frequency) costly
reliable method required on
both DC (for start) and AC (to
re-ignite the arc)
can be used remotely
HF produce interference
requires superior insulation
May 9, 2014 260 of 691
Pulsed current
usually peak current is 2-10
times background current
useful on metals sensitive to
high heat input
reduced distortions
in case of dissimilar thicknesses
equal penetration can be
achieved
Time
C
u
r
r
e
n
t

(
A
)

Pulse
time
Cycle
time
Peak
current
Background
current
Average current
one set of variables can be used in all positions
used for bridging gaps in open root joints
require special power source
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Polarity Influence cathodic cleaning effect
May 9, 2014 262 of 691

Old types: (Slightly Radioactive)
Thoriated: DC electrode -ve - steels and most metals
1% thoriated + tungsten for higher current values
2% thoriated for lower current values
Zirconiated: AC - aluminum alloys and magnesium
New types: (Not Radioactive)
Cerium: DC electrode -ve - steels and most metals
Lanthanum: AC - Aluminum alloys and magnesium

Tungsten Electrodes
May 9, 2014 263 of 691
TIG torch set-up
Electrode extension
Electrode
extension
Stickout
2-3 times
electrode
diameter
Electrode
extension
Low electron
emission
Unstable arc
Too
small
Overheating
Tungsten
inclusions
Too
large
May 9, 2014 264 of 691
Choosing the correct electrode
Polarity Influence cathodic cleaning effect
May 9, 2014 265 of 691

Old types: (Slightly Radioactive)
Thoriated: DC electrode -ve - steels and most metals
1% thoriated + tungsten for higher current values
2% thoriated for lower current values
Zirconiated: AC - aluminum alloys and magnesium
New types: (Not Radioactive)
Cerium: DC electrode -ve - steels and most metals
Lanthanum: AC - Aluminum alloys and magnesium

Tungsten Electrodes
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Tungsten electrode types
Pure tungsten electrodes:
colour code - green
no alloy additions
low current carrying capacity
maintains a clean balled end
can be used for AC welding of Al and Mg alloys
poor arc initiation and arc stability with AC compared
with other electrode types
used on less critical applications
low cost
May 9, 2014 267 of 691
Thoriated tungsten electrodes:
colour code - yellow/red/violet
20% higher current carrying capacity compared to
pure tungsten electrodes
longer life - greater resistance to contamination
thermionic - easy arc initiation, more stable arc
maintain a sharpened tip
recommended for DCEN, seldom used on AC
(difficult to maintain a balled tip)
This slightly radioactive
May 9, 2014 268 of 691
Ceriated tungsten electrodes:
colour code - grey (orange acc. AWS A-5.12)
operate successfully with AC or DC
Ce not radioactive - replacement for thoriated types
Lanthaniated tungsten electrodes:
colour code - black/gold/blue
operating characteristics similar with ceriated
electrode
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Zirconiated tungsten electrodes:
colour code - brown/white
operating characteristics fall between those of pure
and thoriated electrodes
retains a balled end during welding - good for AC
welding
high resistance to contamination
preferred for radiographic quality welds
May 9, 2014 270 of 691
Electrode tip for DCEN
Electrode tip prepared for low
current welding
Electrode tip prepared for high
current welding
Vertex
angle
Penetration
increase
Increase
Bead width
increase
Decrease
2
-
2
,
5

t
i
m
e
s

e
l
e
c
t
r
o
d
e

d
i
a
m
e
t
e
r

May 9, 2014 271 of 691
Electrode tip for AC
Electrode tip ground
Electrode tip ground and
then conditioned
DC -ve
AC
May 9, 2014 272 of 691
Tungsten electrodes
The electrode diameter, type and vertex angle are all critical
factors considered as essential variables. The vertex angle is
as shown
Vetex angle
Note: when welding
aluminium with AC
current, the tungsten end
is chamfered and forms a
ball end when welding
DC -ve
Note: too fine an angle will
promote melting of the
electrodes tip
AC
TIG Welding Variables
May 9, 2014 273 of 691
Unstable
arc
Tungsten
inclusions
Welding
current
Electrode tip
not properly
heated
Excessive
melting or
volatilisation
Too
low
Too
high
Factors to be considered:
Penetration
May 9, 2014 275 of 691
Shielding gas requirements
Preflow and
postflow
Preflow Postflow
Shielding gas flow
Welding current
Flow rate
too low
Flow rate
too high
May 9, 2014 276 of 691
Special shielding methods
Pipe root run shielding Back Purging to prevent
excessive oxidation during welding, normally argon.
May 9, 2014 277 of 691
TIG torch set-up
Electrode extension
Electrode
extension
Stickout
2-3 times
electrode
diameter
Electrode
extension
Low electron
emission
Unstable arc
Too
small
Overheating
Tungsten
inclusions
Too
large
May 9, 2014 278 of 691
TIG Welding Consumables
Welding consumables for TIG:
Filler wires, Shielding gases, tungsten electrodes (non-
consumable).
Filler wires of different materials composition and
variable diameters available in standard lengths, with
applicable code stamped for identification
Steel Filler wires of very high quality, with copper
coating to resist corrosion.
shielding gases mainly Argon and Helium, usually of
highest purity (99.9%).
May 9, 2014 279 of 691
A Tungsten Inclusion always shows up as
bright white on a radiograph
Tungsten Inclusion
May be caused by Thermal Shock of
heating to fast and small fragments
break off and enter the weld pool, so a
slope up device is normally fitted to
prevent this could be caused by touch
down also.
Most TIG sets these days have slope-
up devices that brings the current to
the set level over a short period of
time so the tungsten is heated more
slowly and gently
May 9, 2014 280 of 691
Most welding defects with TIG are caused by a lack of welder
skill, or incorrect setting of the equipment. i.e. current, torch
manipulation, welding speed, gas flow rate, etc.
Tungsten inclusions (low skill or wrong vertex angle)
Surface porosity (loss of gas shield mainly on site)
Crater pipes (bad weld finish technique i.e. slope out)
Oxidation of S/S weld bead, or root by poor gas cover
Root concavity (excess purge pressure in pipe)
Lack of penetration/fusion (widely on root runs)
TIG typical defects
May 9, 2014 281 of 691
Tungsten Inert Gas Welding
Advantages
High quality
Good control
All positions
Lowest H
2
process
Minimal cleaning
Autogenous welding
(No filler material)
Can be automated

Disadvantages
High skill factor required
Low deposition rate
Small consumable
range
High protection required
Complex equipment
Low productivity
High ozone levels +HF
May 9, 2014 282 of 691
Welding Coordinator
MIG/MAG Welding
Section 12
May 9, 2014 283 of 691
The MIG/MAG welding process was initially developed in the
USA in the late 1940s for the welding of aluminum alloys.
The latest EN Welding Standards now refer the process by the
American term GMAW (Gas Metal Arc Welding)
The process uses a continuously fed wire electrode
The weld pool is protected by a separately supplied
shielding gas
The process is classified as a semi-automatic welding
process but may be fully automated
The wire electrode can be either bare/solid wire or flux
cored hollow wire
Gas Metal Arc Welding
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MIG/MAG - Principle of operation
May 9, 2014 286 of 691
MIG/MAG process variables
Welding current
Polarity
Increasing welding current
Increase in depth and width
Increase in deposition rate
May 9, 2014 287 of 691
MIG/MAG process variables
Arc voltage
Travel speed
Increasing travel speed
Reduced penetration and width, undercut
Increasing arc voltage
Reduced penetration, increased width
Excessive voltage can cause porosity,
spatter and undercut
May 9, 2014 289 of 691
Types of Shielding Gas
MIG (Metal Inert Gas)
Inert Gas is required for all non-ferrous alloys (Al, Cu, Ni)
Most common inert gas is Argon
Argon + Helium used to give a hotter arc - better for thicker
joints and alloys with higher thermal conductivity
May 9, 2014 290 of 691
MIG/MAG shielding gases
Type of material
Shielding gas
Carbon steel
Stainless steel
Aluminium
CO
2
, Ar+(5-20)%CO
2

Ar+2%O
2

Ar
May 9, 2014 291 of 691
Argon (Ar):
higher density than air; low thermal conductivity the
arc has a high energy inner cone; good wetting at the
toes; low ionisation potential
Helium (He):
lower density than air; high thermal conductivity
uniformly distributed arc energy; parabolic profile; high
ionisation potential
Carbon Dioxide (CO
2
):
cheap; deep penetration profile; cannot support spray
transfer; poor wetting; high spatter
Ar Ar-He He CO
2

May 9, 2014 292 of 691
Gases for dip transfer:
CO
2
: carbon steels only: deep penetration; fast welding
speed; high spatter levels
Ar + up to 25% CO
2
: carbon and low alloy steels:
minimum spatter; good wetting and bead contour
90% He + 7.5% Ar + 2.5% CO
2
:stainless steels:
minimises undercut; small HAZ
Ar: Al, Mg, Cu, Ni and their alloys on thin sections
Ar + He mixtures: Al, Mg, Cu, Ni and their alloys on
thicker sections (over 3 mm)
May 9, 2014 293 of 691
Gases for spray transfer
Ar + (5-18)% CO
2
: carbon steels: minimum spatter;
good wetting and bead contour
Ar + 2% O
2
: low alloy steels: minimise undercut;
provides good toughness
Ar + 2% O
2
or CO
2
: stainless steels: improved arc
stability; provides good fusion
Ar: Al, Mg, Cu, Ni, Ti and their alloys
Ar + He mixtures: Al, Cu, Ni and their alloys: hotter arc
than pure Ar to offset heat dissipation
Ar + (25-30)% N
2
: Cu alloys: greater heat input
May 9, 2014 294 of 691
Types of Shielding Gas
MAG (Metal Active Gas)
Active gases used are Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide
Argon with a small % of active gas is required for all
steels (including stainless steels) to ensure a stable
arc & good droplet wetting into the weld pool
Typical active gases are
Ar + 20% CO
2
for C-Mn & low alloy steels
Ar + 2% O
2
for stainless steels
100% CO
2
can be used for C - steels

May 9, 2014 295 of 691
Penetration Deep Moderate Shallow
Excess weld metal Maximum Moderate Minimum
Undercut Severe Moderate Minimum
MIG/MAG Gas Metal Arc Welding
Electrode
orientation

Electrode extension
Increased extension
May 9, 2014 296 of 691
MIG / MAG - self-regulating
arc
Stable condition Sudden change in gun position
L
19 mm
25 mm
L
Arc length L = 6,4 mm
Arc voltage = 24V
Welding current = 250A
WFS = 6,4 m/min
Melt off rate = 6,4 m/min
Arc voltage = 29V
WFS = 6,4 m/min
Melt off rate = 5,6
m/min
Current (A)
V
o
l
t
a
g
e

(
V
)

May 9, 2014 297 of 691
MIG/MAG - self-regulating arc
Sudden change in gun position
25 mm
L
Arc voltage = 29V
WFS = 6,4 m/min
Current (A)
V
o
l
t
a
g
e

(
V
)

Re-established stable condition
25 mm
L
Arc voltage = 24V
WFS = 6,4 m/min
May 9, 2014 298 of 691
Terminating the arc
Burnback time
delayed current cut-off to prevent wire freeze
in the weld end crater
depends on WFS (set as short as possible!)
Contact tip
Workpiec
e
Burnback time 0.05 sec 0.10 sec 0.15 sec
14 mm
8 mm
3 mm
Current - 250A
Voltage - 27V
WFS - 7,8 m/min
Wire diam. - 1,2 mm
Shielding gas -
Ar+18%CO
2

Insulatin
g slag
Crater fill
May 9, 2014 299 of 691
MIG/MAG - metal transfer modes
Set-up for dip transfer
Set-up for spray transfer
Electrode
extension
19-25 mm
Contact tip
recessed
(3-5 mm)
Contact tip
extension
(0-3,2 mm)
Electrode
extension
6-13 mm
May 9, 2014 301 of 691
Current/voltage conditions
Current
Voltage
Dip transfer
Spray
transfer
Globular
transfer
Electrode diameter = 1,2 mm
WFS = 3,2 m/min
Current = 145 A
Voltage = 18-20V
Electrode diameter = 1,2 mm
WFS = 8,3 m/min
Current = 295 A
Voltage = 28V
May 9, 2014 303 of 691
MIG/MAG-methods of metal transfer
Dip transfer
Transfer occur due to short circuits
between wire and weld pool, high
level of spatter, need inductance
control to limit current raise
Can use pure CO
2
or Ar- CO
2

mixtures as shielding gas
Metal transfer occur when arc is
extinguished
Requires low welding current/arc
voltage, a low heat input process.
Resulting in low residual stress
and distortion
Used for thin materials and all
position welds
May 9, 2014 306 of 691
Spray transfer
Transfer occur due to pinch
effect NO contact between wire
and weld pool!
Requires argon-rich shielding
gas
Metal transfer occur in small
droplets, a large volume weld
pool
Requires high welding
current/arc voltage, a high heat
input process. Resulting in high
residual stress and distortion
Used for thick materials and
flat/horizontal position welds
May 9, 2014 307 of 691
Pulsed transfer
Controlled metal transfer, one droplet per pulse,
No transfer between droplet and weld pool!
Requires special power sources
Metal transfer occur in small droplets (diameter equal
to that of electrode)
Requires moderate welding current/arc voltage, a
reduced heat input . Resulting in smaller residual
stress and distortion compared to spray transfer
Pulse frequency controls the volume of weld pool,
used for root runs and out of position welds
May 9, 2014 308 of 691
Pulsed transfer
Controlled metal transfer. one droplet
per pulse. NO transfer during
background current!
Requires special power sources
Metal transfer occur in small droplets
(diameter equal to that of electrode)
Requires moderate welding current/arc voltage, reduced
heat input smaller residual stress and distortions
compared to spray transfer
Pulse frequency controls the volume of weld pool, used
for root runs and out of position welds
May 9, 2014 310 of 691
Globular transfer
Transfer occur due to gravity or
short circuits between drops and
weld pool
Requires CO
2
shielding gas
Metal transfer occur in large drops
(diameter larger than that of
electrode) hence severe spatter
Requires high welding current/arc
voltage, a high heat input process.
Resulting in high residual stress
and distortion
Non desired mode of transfer!
May 9, 2014 315 of 691
O.C.V. Arc Voltage
Virtually no Change.
Voltage
Flat or Constant Voltage Characteristic Used With
MIG/MAG, ESW & SAW < 1000 amps
100 200 300
33
32
31
Large Current Change
Small Voltage
Change.
Amperage
Flat or Constant Voltage Characteristic
May 9, 2014 316 of 691
MIG/MAG welding gun assembly
Contact
tip
Gas
diffuser
Handle
Gas
nozzle
Trigger WFS remote
control
potentiometer
Union nut
The Push-Pull gun
May 9, 2014 318 of 691
PROCESS CHARACTERISTICS
Requires a constant voltage power source, gas supply, wire
feeder, welding torch/gun and hose package
Wire is fed continuously through the conduit and is burnt-off
at a rate that maintains a constant arc length/arc voltage
Wire feed speed is directly related to burn-off rate
Wire burn-off rate is directly related to current
When the welder holds the welding gun the process is said
to be a semi-automatic process
The process can be mechanised and also automated
In Europe the process is usually called MIG or MAG
May 9, 2014 322 of 691
Most welding imperfections in MIG/MAG are caused by lack of
welder skill, or incorrect settings of the equipment
Worn contact tips will cause poor power pick up, or transfer
Bad power connections will cause a loss of voltage in the arc
Silica inclusions (in Fe steels) due to poor inter-run cleaning
Lack of fusion (primarily with dip transfer)
Porosity (from loss of gas shield on site etc)
Solidification problems (cracking, centerline pipes, crater
pipes) especially on deep narrow welds
MIG/MAG typical defects
May 9, 2014 323 of 691

Flux Core Arc Welding

WELDING PROCESS
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Flux cored arc welding
FCAW
methods
With gas
shielding -
Outershield
Without gas
shielding -
Innershield
With metal
powder -
Metal core
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Outershield - principle of operation
May 9, 2014 326 of 691
Innershield - principle of operation
May 9, 2014 327 of 691
ARC CHARACTERISTICS
Volts
Amps
OCV
Constant Voltage Characteristic
Small change in voltage =
large change in amperage
The self
adjusting arc.
Large arc gap
Small arc gap
May 9, 2014 328 of 691
Insulated extension nozzle
Current carrying guild tube
Flux cored hollow wire
Flux powder
Arc shield composed of
vaporized and slag forming
compounds
Metal droplets covered
with thin slag coating
Molten
weld
pool
Solidified weld
metal and slag
Flux core
Wire joint
Flux core
wires
Flux Core Arc Welding (FCAW)
May 9, 2014 329 of 691
Flux cored arc welding
FCAW
methods
With gas
shielding -
Outershield
Without gas
shielding -
Innershield
(114)
With metal
powder -
Metal core
With active
gas shielding
(136)
With inert gas
shielding (137)
May 9, 2014 330 of 691
FCAW - differences from MIG/MAG
usually operates in DCEP
but some Innershield
wires operates in DCEN
power sources need to
be more powerful due to
the higher currents
doesn't work in deep
transfer mode
require knurled feed rolls
Innershield wires use
a different type of
welding gun
May 9, 2014 331 of 691
Backhand (drag) technique
Advantages
preferred method for flat or horizontal position
slower progression of the weld
deeper penetration
weld stays hot longer, easy to remove dissolved
gasses
Disadvantages
produce a higher weld profile
difficult to follow the weld joint
can lead to burn-through on thin sheet plates
May 9, 2014 332 of 691
Forehand (push) technique
Advantages
preferred method for vertical up or overhead
position
arc is directed towards the unwelded joint , preheat
effect
easy to follow the weld joint and control the
penetration
Disadvantages
produce a low weld profile, with coarser ripples
fast weld progression, shallower depth of penetration
the amount of spatter can increase
May 9, 2014 333 of 691
FCAW advantages
less sensitive to lack of fusion
requires smaller included angle compared to MMA
high productivity
all positional
smooth bead surface, less danger of undercut
basic types produce excellent toughness properties
good control of the weld pool in positional welding
especially with rutile wires
seamless wires have no torsional strain, twist free
ease of varying the alloying constituents
no need for shielding gas
May 9, 2014 334 of 691
FCAW disadvantages
limited to steels and Ni-base alloys
slag covering must be removed
FCAW wire is more expensive on a weight basis
than solid wires (exception: some high alloy steels)
for gas shielded process, the gaseous shield may be
affected by winds and drafts
more smoke and fumes are generated compared
with MIG/MAG
in case of Innershield wires, it might be necessary to
break the wire for restart (due to the high amount of
insulating slag formed at the tip of the wire)
May 9, 2014 335 of 691
Advantages:
1) Field or shop use
2) High productivity
3) All positional
4) Slag supports and
shapes the weld Bead
5) No need for shielding
gas
Disadvantages:
1) High skill factor
2) Slag inclusions
3) Cored wire is
Expensive
4) High level of fume
(Inner-shield)
5) Limited to steels and
nickel alloys
FCAW advantages/disadvantages
May 9, 2014 336 of 691
Welding Coordinator
Submerged Arc Welding
Section 13
May 9, 2014 337 of 691
Submerged arc welding was developed in the Soviet Union
during the 2
nd
world war for the welding of thick section steel.
The process is normally mechanized.
The process uses amps in the range of 100 to over 2000, which
gives a very high current density in the wire producing deep
penetration and high dilution welds.
A flux is supplied separately via a flux hopper in the form of either
fused or agglomerated.
The arc is not visible as it is submerged beneath the flux layer
and no eye protection is required.
Submerged Arc Welding Introduction
May 9, 2014 338 of 691
SAW Principle of operation
May 9, 2014 339 of 691
Principles of operation
Factors that determine whether to use SAW chemical
composition and mechanical properties required for the weld
deposit
thickness of base metal to be welded
joint accessibility
position in which the weld is to be made
frequency or volume of welding to be performed
SAW methods
Semiautomatic Mechanised Automatic
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-
+
Power
supply
Filler wire spool
Flux hopper
Wire electrode
Flux
Slide rail
May 9, 2014 341 of 691
SAW process variables
welding current
current type and polarity
welding voltage
travel speed
electrode size
electrode extension
width and depth of the layer of flux
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SAW process variables
Welding current
controls depth of penetration and the amount of
base metal melted & dilution
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SAW operating variables
Current type and polarity
Usually DCEP, deep
penetration, better
resistance to
porosity
DCEN increase
deposition rate but
reduce penetration
(surfacing)
AC used to avoid
arc blow; can give
unstable arc
May 9, 2014 344 of 691
SAW Consumables
(Covered in detail in Section 14)
Fused fluxes advantages:
good chemical homogeneity
easy removal of fines without affecting flux
composition
normally not hygroscopic & easy storage and handling
readily recycled without significant change in particle
size or composition
Fused fluxes disadvantages:
difficult to add deoxidizers and ferro-alloys (due to
segregation or extremely high loss)
high temperatures needed to melt ingredients limit the
range of flux compositions
May 9, 2014 345 of 691
SAW Consumables
Agglomerated fluxes advantages:
easy addition of deoxidizers and alloying elements
usable with thicker layer of flux when welding
colour identification

Agglomerated fluxes disadvantages:
tendency to absorb moisture
possible gas evolution from the molten slag leading to
porosity
possible change in flux composition due to segregation or
removal of fine mesh particles

May 9, 2014 346 of 691
SAW equipment
Power sources can be:
transformers for AC
transformer-rectifiers for DC
Static characteristic can be:
Constant Voltage (flat) - most of the power sources
Constant Current (drooping)

May 9, 2014 347 of 691
SAW equipment
Constant Voltage (Flat Characteristic) power sources:
most commonly used supplies for SAW
can be used for both semiautomatic and automatic welding
self-regulating arc
simple wire feed speed control
wire feed speed controls the current and power supply
controls the voltage
applications for DC are limited to 1000A due to severe arc
blow (also thin wires!)
May 9, 2014 348 of 691
ARC CHARACTERISTICS
Volts
Amps
OCV
Constant Voltage Characteristic
Small change in voltage =
large change in amperage
The self
adjusting arc.
Large arc gap
Small arc gap
May 9, 2014 349 of 691
SAW equipment
Constant Current (Drooping Characteristic) power sources:
Over 1000A - very fast speed required - control of burn off
rate and stick out length
can be used for both semiautomatic and automatic welding
not self-regulating arc
must be used with a voltage-sensing variable wire feed
speed control
more expensive due to more complex wire feed speed
control
arc voltage depends upon wire feed speed whilst the power
source controls the current
cannot be used for high-speed welding of thin steel
May 9, 2014 350 of 691
SAW equipment
Welding heads can be mounted on a:
Tractor type carriage
provides travel along straight or
gently curved joints
can ride on tracks set up along the
joint (with grooved wheels) or on
the workpiece itself
can use guide wheels as tracking
device
due to their portability, are used in
field welding or where the piece
cannot be moved

Courtesy of ESAB AB
Courtesy of ESAB AB
May 9, 2014 351 of 691
Welding current
too high current: excessive excess weld metal
(waste of electrode), increase weld shrinkage and
causes greater distortions
excessively high current: digging arc, undercut,
burn through; also a high and narrow bead &
solidification cracking
too low current: incomplete
fusion or inadequate penetration
excessively low current:
unstable arc
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Welding voltage
welding voltage controls arc
length
an increased voltage can increase pick-up of alloying elements
from an alloy flux
increase in voltage produce a
flatter and wider bead
increase in voltage increase
flux consumption
increase in voltage tend to
reduce porosity
an increased voltage may
help bridging an excessive
root gap
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Welding voltage
low voltage produce a
stiffer arc & improves
penetration in a deep
weld groove and resists
arc blow
excessive low voltage
produce a high narrow
bead & difficult slag
removal
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Welding voltage
excessively high voltage
produce a hat-shaped bead
& tendency to crack
increase undercut & make slag
removal difficult in groove
welds
produce a concave fillet weld
that is subject to cracking
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Travel speed
increase in travel speed: decrease heat input & less
filler metal applied per unit of length, less excess
weld metal & weld bead becomes smaller
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Travel speed
excessively high speed
lead to undercut, arc
blow and porosity
excessively low speed
produce hat-shaped beads
danger of cracking
excessively low speed produce rough beads and
lead to slag inclusions
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Electrode size
at the same current, small electrodes have higher
current density & higher deposition rates
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Electrode extension
increased electrode extension adds resistance in the
welding circuit I increase in deposition rate, decrease in
penetration and bead width
to keep a proper weld shape, when electrode extension is
increased, voltage must also be increased
when burn-through is a problem (e.g. thin gauge), increase
electrode extension
excessive electrode extension: it is more difficult to
maintain the electrode tip in the correct position
May 9, 2014 359 of 691
Depth of flux
depth of flux layer influence the appearance of weld
usually, depth of flux is 25-30 mm
if flux layer is to deep the arc is too confined, result is
a rough ropelike appearing weld
if flux layer is to deep the gases cannot escape & the
surface of molten weld metal becomes irregularly
distorted
if flux layer is too shallow, flashing and spattering will
occur, give a poor appearance and porous weld
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SAW technological variables
Travel angle effect - Butt weld on plates
Penetration Deep Moderate Shallow
Excess weld metal Maximum Moderate Minimum
Tendency to undercut Severe Moderate Minimum
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Earth position
+
-
Direction of
travel
welding towards earth produces backward arc blow
deep penetration
convex weld profile

May 9, 2014 365 of 691
Earth position
+
-
Direction of
travel
welding away earth produces forward arc blow
normal penetration depth
smooth, even weld profile

May 9, 2014 366 of 691
Weld backing
Backing strip
Backing weld
Copper backing
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Starting/finishing the weld
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SAW variants
Twin wire SAW welding
two electrodes are feed
into the same weld pool
wire diameter usually 1,6 to
3,2 mm
electrodes are connected
to a single power source & a
single arc is established
normally operate with
DCEP
offers increased deposition
rate by up to 80% compared
to single wire SAW
May 9, 2014 369 of 691
SAW variants
Wires can be oriented
for maximum or
minimum penetration
May 9, 2014 370 of 691
SAW variants
Tandem arc SAW process usually DCEP on lead
and AC on trail to reduce
arc blow
requires two separate
power sources
the electrodes are active
in the same puddle BUT
there are 2 separate arcs
increased deposition
rate by up to 100%
compared with single
wire SAW
May 9, 2014 371 of 691
SAW variants
SAW tandem arc
with two wires
Courtesy of ESAB AB
May 9, 2014 372 of 691
SAW variants
Single pool - highest deposition rate
Twin pool - travel speed limited by undercut;
very resistant to porosity and cracks
May 9, 2014 373 of 691
SAW variants
Tandem arc SAW process - multiple wires
only for welding thick
sections (>30 mm)
not suitable for use in
narrow weld
preparations (root
passes)
one 4 mm wire at 600 A,
6.8 kg/hr
tandem two 4 mm wires
at 600 A, 13.6 kg/hr
Courtesy of ESAB AB
May 9, 2014 374 of 691
SAW variants
Strip cladding needs a
special welding head
May 9, 2014 375 of 691
SAW variants
Narrow gap welding
for welding thick
materials
less filler metal required
requires special groove
preparation and special
welding head
requires special fluxes,
otherwise problems with
slag removal
defect removal is very
difficult
May 9, 2014 377 of 691
SAW variants
Hot wire welding
the hot wire is connected to power source & much
more efficient than cold wire (current is used entirely
to heat the wire!)
increase deposition rates
up to 100%
requires additional
welding equipment,
additional control of
variables, considerable
set-up time and closer
operator attention
May 9, 2014 378 of 691
SAW variants
SAW with metal powder addition
increased deposition rates up to
70%; increased welding speed
gives smooth fusion, improved
bead appearance, reduced
penetration and dilution from parent
metal & higher impact strength
metal powders can modify
chemical composition of final weld
deposit
does not increase risk of cracking
do not require additional arc energy
metal powder can be added ahead
or directly into the weld pool
May 9, 2014 379 of 691
SAW variants
SAW with metal powder addition
magnetic attachment of powder
SAW with metal cored wires
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SAW variants
Storage tank
SAW of circular
welds
Courtesy of ESAB AB
May 9, 2014 382 of 691
Advantages of SAW
high current density, high deposition rates (up to 10 times
those for MMA), high productivity
deep penetration allowing the use of small welding grooves
fast travel speed, less distortion
deslagging is easier
uniform bead appearance with good surface finish and good
fatigue properties
can be easily performed mechanised, giving a higher duty
cycle and low skill level required
provide consistent quality when performed automatic or
mechanised
Virtually assured radiographically sound welds
arc is not visible
little smoke/fumes are developed
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Advantages
Low weld-metal cost
Easily automated
Low levels of ozone
High productivity
No visible arc light
Minimum cleaning
Disadvantages
Restricted welding
positions
Arc blow on DC
current
Shrinkage defects
Difficult penetration
control
Limited joints
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Welding Coordinator
Welding Consumables
Section 14
May 9, 2014 386 of 691
BS EN 499 MMA Covered Electrodes
Covered Electrode
Toughness
Yield Strength N/mm
2
Chemical composition
Flux Covering
Weld Metal Recovery
and Current Type
Welding Position
Hydrogen Content
E 50 3 2Ni B 7 2 H10
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Welding consumables are any products that are used up in
the production of a weld
Welding consumables may be:
Covered electrodes, filler wires and electrode wires.
Shielding or oxy-fuel gases.
Separately supplied fluxes.
Fusible inserts.

Welding consumables
May 9, 2014 388 of 691
Welding Consumable Standards
MMA (SMAW)
BS EN 499: Steel electrodes
AWS A5.1 Non-alloyed steel
electrodes
AWS A5.4 Chromium
electrodes
AWS A5.5 Alloyed steel
electrodes
MIG/MAG (GMAW) TIG
(GTAW)
BS 2901: Filler wires
BS EN 440: Wire electrodes
AWS A5.9: Filler wires
BS EN 439: Shielding gases
SAW
BS 4165: Wire and fluxes
BS EN 756: Wire electrodes
BS EN 760: Fluxes
AWS A5.17: Wires and fluxes
May 9, 2014 389 of 691
Welding Consumable Gases
welding gases
GMAW, FCAW, TIG, Oxy- Fuel
Supplied in cylinders or storage
tanks for large quantities
Colour coded cylinders to minimise
wrong use
Subject to regulations concerned
handling, quantities and positioning
of storage areas
Moisture content is limited to avoid
cold cracking
Dew point (the temperature at which
the vapour begins to condense)
must be checked
May 9, 2014 390 of 691
Welding Consumables
Each consumable is critical in respect to:
Size, (diameter and length)
Classification / Supplier
Condition
Treatments e.g. baking / drying
Handling and storage is critical for consumable
control
Handling and storage of gases is critical for safety
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The three main electrode covering types used in MMA welding
Cellulosic - deep penetration/fusion
Rutile - general purpose
Basic - low hydrogen

MMA Covered Electrodes
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Welding consumables for MMA:
Consist of a core wire typically between 350-450mm in
length and from 2.5mm - 6mm in diameter
The wire is covered with an extruded flux coating
The core wire is generally of a low quality rimming steel
The weld quality is refined by the addition of alloying
and refining agents in the flux coating
The flux coating contains many elements and
compounds that all have a variety of functions during
welding
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Function of the Electrode Covering:
To facilitate arc ignition and give arc stability
To generate gas for shielding the arc & molten metal from air
contamination
To de-oxidise the weld metal and flux impurities into the slag
To form a protective slag blanket over the solidifying and
cooling weld metal
To provide alloying elements to give the required weld metal
properties
To aid positional welding (slag design to have suitable
freezing temperature to support the molten weld metal)
To control hydrogen contents in the weld (basic type)
May 9, 2014 395 of 691
1: Electrode size (diameter and length)
2: Covering condition: adherence, cracks, chips and concentricity
3: Electrode designation
EN 499-E 51 3 B
Arc ignition enhancing materials (optional!)
See BS EN ISO 544 for further information
Covered electrode inspection
May 9, 2014 396 of 691
Plastic foil sealed cardboard box
rutile electrodes
general purpose basic electrodes
Tin can
cellulosic electrodes
Vacuum sealed pack
extra low hydrogen electrodes
Courtesy of Lincoln Electric
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May 9, 2014 397 of 691
Cellulosic electrodes:
covering contains cellulose (organic material).
produce a gas shield high in hydrogen raising the arc
voltage.
Deep penetration / fusion characteristics enables
welding at high speed without risk of lack of fusion.
generates high level of fumes and H2 cold cracking.
Forms a thin slag layer with coarse weld profile.
not require baking or drying (excessive heat will
damage electrode covering!).
Mainly used for stove pipe welding
hydrogen content is 80-90 ml/100 g of weld metal.
May 9, 2014 398 of 691
Cellulosic Electrodes
Disadvantages:
weld beads have high hydrogen
risk of cracking (need to keep joint hot during welding to allow
H to escape)
not suitable for higher strength steels - cracking risk too
high (may not be allowed for Grades stronger than X70)
not suitable for very thick sections (may not be used on
thicknesses > ~ 35mm)
not suitable when low temperature toughness is required
(impact toughness satisfactory down to ~ -20C)
May 9, 2014 399 of 691
Advantages:
Deep penetration/fusion
Suitable for welding in all
positions
Fast travel speeds
Large volumes of shielding
gas
Low control

Disadvantages:
High in hydrogen
High crack tendency
Rough weld
appearance
High spatter contents
Low deposition rates
Cellulosic Electrodes
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Rutile electrodes:
covering contains TiO
2
slag former and arc stabiliser.
easy to strike arc, less spatter, excellent for positional
welding.
stable, easy-to-use arc can operate in both DC and AC.
slag easy to detach, smooth profile.
Reasonably good strength weld metal.
Used mainly on general purpose work.
Low pressure pipework, support brackets.
electrodes can be dried to lower H2 content but cannot be
baked as it will destroy the coating.
hydrogen content is 25-30 ml/100 g of weld metal.
May 9, 2014 401 of 691
Rutile electrodes
Disadvantages:
they cannot be made with a low hydrogen content
cannot be used on high strength steels or thick joints -
cracking risk too high
they do not give good toughness at low temperatures
these limitations mean that they are only suitable for general
engineering - low strength, thin steel
May 9, 2014 402 of 691
Advantages:
Easy to use
Low cost / control
Smooth weld profiles
Slag easily detachable
High deposition
possible with the
addition of iron powder
Disadvantages:
High in hydrogen
High crack tendency
Low strength
Low toughness values
Rutile Electrodes
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Rutile Variants
High Recovery Rutile Electrodes
Characteristics:
coating is bulked out with iron powder
iron powder gives the electrode high recovery
extra weld metal from the iron powder can mean that weld
deposit from a single electrode can be as high as 180% of
the core wire weight
give good productivity
large weld beads with smooth profile can look very similar to
SAW welds
May 9, 2014 404 of 691
High Recovery Rutile Electrodes
Disadvantages:
Same as standard rutile electrodes with respect to hydrogen
control
large weld beads produced cannot be used for all-positional
welding
the very high recovery types usually limited to PA & PB
positions
more moderate recovery may allow PC use
May 9, 2014 405 of 691
Basic covering:
Produce convex weld profile and difficult to detach slag.
Very suitable for for high pressure work, thick section steel
and for high strength steels.
Prior to use electrodes should be baked, typically 350C for 2
hour plus to reduce moisture to very low levels and achieve
low hydrogen potential status.
Contain calcium fluoride and calcium carbonate compounds.
cannot be re-baked indefinitely!
low hydrogen potential gives weld metal very good
toughness and YS.
have the lowest level of hydrogen (less than 5 ml/100 g of
weld metal).
May 9, 2014 406 of 691
Basic Electrodes
Disadvantages:
Careful control of baking and/or issuing of electrodes is
essential to maintain low hydrogen status and avoid risk of
cracking
Typical baking temperature 350C for 1 to 2hours.
Holding temperature 120 to 150C.
Issue in heated quivers typically 70C.
Welders need to take more care / require greater skill.
Weld profile usually more convex.
Deslagging requires more effort than for other types.
May 9, 2014 407 of 691
Basic Electrodes
Advantages
High toughness values
Low hydrogen contents
Low crack tendency
Disadvantages
High cost
High control
High welder skill
required
Convex weld profiles
Poor stop / start
properties
May 9, 2014 408 of 691
Covered Electrode
Toughness
Yield Strength N/mm
2
Chemical composition
Flux Covering
Weld Metal Recovery
and Current Type
Welding Position
Hydrogen Content
E 50 3 2Ni B 7 2 H10
May 9, 2014 409 of 691
Electrodes classified as follows:
E 35 - Minimum yield strength 350 N/mm
2

Tensile strength 440 - 570 N/mm
2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2
May 9, 2014 411 of 691
AWS A5.1 Alloyed Electrodes
Covered Electrode
Tensile Strength (p.s.i)
Welding Position
Flux Covering
E 60 1 3
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AWS A5.5 Alloyed Electrodes
Covered Electrode
Tensile Strength (p.s.i)
Welding Position
Flux Covering
Moisture Control
Alloy Content
E 70 1 8 M G
May 9, 2014 413 of 691
TYPES OF ELECTRODES
(for C, C-Mn Steels)
BS EN 499 AWS A5.1
Cellulosic E XX X C EXX10
EXX11
Rutile E XX X R EXX12
EXX13
Rutile Heavy Coated E XX X RR EXX24
Basic E XX X B EXX15
EXX16
EXX18
May 9, 2014 414 of 691
Electrode efficiency
75-90% for usual electrodes
up to 180% for iron powder electrodes
Mass of weld metal deposited
Electrode Eficiency =
Mass of core wire melted
May 9, 2014 415 of 691
Covered electrode treatment
Cellulosic
electrodes
Rutile
electrodes
Use straight from the
box - No baking/drying!
If necessary, dry up to
120C- No baking!
Vacuum
packed basic
electrodes
Use straight from the pack
within 4 hours - No
rebaking!
May 9, 2014 416 of 691
Covered electrode treatment
After baking, maintain in
oven at 150C
Basic electrodes
Baking in oven 2 hours
at 350C!
Use from quivers at
75C
If not used within 4
hours, return to oven
and rebake!
Weld
Limited number of
rebakes!
May 9, 2014 417 of 691
TIG Consumables
Welding Consumables
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Welding consumables for TIG:
Filler wires, Shielding gases, tungsten electrodes (non-
consumable).
Filler wires of different materials composition and
variable diameters available in standard lengths, with
applicable code stamped for identification
Steel Filler wires of very high quality, with copper
coating to resist corrosion.
shielding gases mainly Argon and Helium, usually of
highest purity (99.9%).
May 9, 2014 419 of 691
Welding rods:
supplied in cardboard/plastic tubes
must be kept clean and free from oil and dust
might require degreasing
May 9, 2014 420 of 691
Fusible Inserts
Before Welding
Pre-placed filler material
After Welding
Other terms used include:
EB inserts (Electric Boat Company)
Consumable socket rings (CSR)
May 9, 2014 421 of 691
Fusible Inserts
Consumable inserts:
used for root runs on pipes
used in conjunction with TIG welding
available for carbon steel, Cr-Mo steel, austenitic stainless
steel, nickel and copper-nickel alloys
different shapes to suit application
Radius
May 9, 2014 422 of 691
Fusible Inserts
Application of consumable inserts
May 9, 2014 423 of 691
Shielding gases for TIG welding
Argon
low cost and greater availability
heavier than air - lower flow rates than Helium
low thermal conductivity - wide top bead profile
low ionisation potential - easier arc starting, better arc
stability with AC, cleaning effect
for the same arc current produce less heat than
helium - reduced penetration, wider HAZ
to obtain the same arc arc power, argon requires a
higher current - increased undercut
May 9, 2014 424 of 691
Helium
costly and lower availability than Argon
lighter than air - requires a higher flow rate compared
with argon (2-3 times)
higher ionisation potential - poor arc stability with AC,
less forgiving for manual welding
for the same arc current produce more heat than
argon - increased penetration, welding of metals with
high melting point or thermal conductivity
to obtain the same arc arc power, helium requires a
lower current - no undercut
May 9, 2014 425 of 691
Hydrogen
not an inert gas - not used as a primary shielding gas
increase the heat input - faster travel speed and
increased penetration
better wetting action - improved bead profile
produce a cleaner weld bead surface
added to argon (up to 5%) - only for austenitic
stainless steels and nickel alloys
flammable and explosive
May 9, 2014 426 of 691
Nitrogen
not an inert gas
high availability - cheap
added to argon (up to 5%) - only for back purge for
duplex stainless, austenitic stainless steels and copper
alloys
not used for mild steels (age embritlement)
strictly prohibited in case of Ni and Ni alloys (porosity)
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MIG / MAG Consumables
(Gases Covered previously)
Welding Consumables
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MIG/MAG Welding Consumables
Welding consumables for MIG/MAG
Spools of Continuous electrode wires and shielding
gases
variable spool size (1-15Kg) and Wire diameter (0.6-
1.6mm) supplied in random or orderly layers
Basic Selection of different materials and their alloys
as electrode wires.
Some Steel Electrode wires copper coating purpose
is corrosion resistance and electrical pick-up
Gases can be pure CO
2
, CO
2
+Argon mixes and
Argon+2%O
2
mixes (stainless steels).

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MIG/MAG Welding Consumables
Welding wires:
carbon and low alloy wires may be copper coated
stainless steel wires are not coated
wires must be kept clean and free from oil and dust
flux cored wires does not require baking or drying
Courtesy of ESAB AB
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Flux Core Wire Consumables
(Not in training manual)
Welding Consumables
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Flux Core Wire Consumables
provide form stability
to the wire
serves as current
transfer during
welding
Functions of metallic sheath: Function of the filling powder:
stabilise the arc
add alloy elements
produce gaseous
shield
produce slag
add iron powder
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Types of cored wire
not sensitive to moisture
pick-up
can be copper coated,
better current transfer
thick sheath, good form
stability, 2 roll drive
feeding possible
difficult to manufacture
good resistance to
moisture pick-up
can be copper
coated
thick sheath
difficult to seal the
sheath
Seamless
cored wire
Butt joint
cored wire
Overlapping
cored wire
sensitive to
moisture pick-
up
cannot be
copper coated
thin sheath
easy to
manufacture
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Core elements and their function
Aluminium - deoxidize & denitrify
Calcium - provide shielding & form slag
Carbon - increase hardness & strength
Manganese - deoxidize & increase strength and toughness
Molybdenum - increase hardness & strength
Nickel - improve hardness, strength, toughness & corrosion
resistance
Potassium - stabilize the arc & form slag
Silicon - deoxidize & form slag
Sodium - stabilize arc & form slag
Titanium - deoxidize, denitrify & form slag
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SAW Consumables
Welding Consumables
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SAW Consumables
Welding fluxes:
are granular mineral compounds mixed according to various
formulations
shield the molten weld pool from the atmosphere
clean the molten weld pool
can modify the chemical composition of the weld metal
prevents rapid escape of heat from welding zone
influence the shape of the weld bead (wetting action)
can be fused, agglomerated or mixed
must be kept warm and dry to avoid porosity
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SAW Consumables
Fused fluxes are normally not hygroscopic but particles can
hold surface moisture so only drying
Agglomerated fluxes contain chemically bonded water. Similar
treatment as basic electrodes
If flux is too fine it will pack and not feed properly. It cannot be
recycled indefinitely
Welding flux:
might be fused or agglomerated
supplied in bags
must be kept warm and dry
handling and stacking requires care
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SAW Consumables
Fused Flux:
Baked at high temperature, glossy, hard and black in colour,
cannot add ferro-manganese, non moisture absorbent and
tends to be of the acidic type
Fused Flux
Flaky appearance
Lower weld quality
Low moisture intake
Low dust tendency
Good re-cycling
Very smooth weld
profile
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SAW Consumables
TYPES OF FLUX
FUSED (ACID TYPE)
name indicates method of manufacture
minerals are fused (melted) and granules produced by
allowing to cool to a solid mass and then crushing or by
spraying the molten flux into water
flux tends to be glass-like (high in Silica)
granules are hard and may appear shiny
granules do not absorb moisture
granules do not tend break down into powder when being
re-circulated
are effectively a low hydrogen flux
welds do not tend to give good toughness at low
temperatures
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SAW Consumables
Fused fluxes advantages:
good chemical homogeneity
easy removal of fines without affecting flux
composition
normally not hygroscopic easy storage and
handling
readily recycled without significant change in
particle size or composition
Fused fluxes disadvantages:
difficult to add deoxidizers and ferro-alloys (due to
segregation or extremely high loss)
high temperatures needed to melt ingredients limit
the range of flux compositions
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Agglomerated Flux:
Baked at a lower temperature, dull, irregularly shaped, friable,
(easily crushed) can easily add alloying elements, moisture
absorbent and tend to be of the basic type
SAW Consumables
Agglomerated Flux
Granulated appearance
High weld quality
Addition of alloys
Lower consumption
Easy slag removal
Smooth weld profile
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SAW Consumables
Agglomerated fluxes advantages:
easy addition of deoxidizers and alloying elements
usable with thicker layer of flux when welding
colour identification

Agglomerated fluxes disadvantages:
tendency to absorb moisture
possible gas evolution from the molten slag leading to
porosity
possible change in flux composition due to segregation or
removal of fine mesh particles

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SAW Consumables
TYPES OF FLUX
AGGLOMERATED (BASIC TYPE)
name indicates method of manufacture
basic minerals are used in powder form and are mixed with a
binder to form individual granules
granules are soft and easily crushed to powder
granules will absorb moisture and it is necessary to protect
the flux from moisture pick-up - usually by holding in a
heated silo
granules tend to break down into powder when being re-
circulated
are a low hydrogen flux - if correctly controlled
welds give good toughness at low temperatures
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SAW Consumables
Mixed fluxes advantages:
several commercial fluxes may be mixed for highly
critical or proprietary welding operations
Mixed fluxes disadvantages:
segregation of the combined fluxes during
shipment, storage and handling
segregation occurring in the feeding and recovery
systems during welding
inconsistency in the combined flux from mix to mix
Mixed fluxes - two or more fused or bonded fluxes are
mixed in any ratio necessary to yield the desired
results
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SAW filler material
Welding wires can be used to weld:
carbon steels
low alloy steels
creep resisting steels
stainless steels
nickel-base alloys
special alloys for surfacing applications
Welding wires can be:
solid wires
metal-cored wires
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SAW filler material
Welding wires:
carbon and low alloy wires are copper coated
wires must be kept clean and free from oil and dust
stainless steel wires are not coated
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SAW filler material
Copper coating functions:
to assure a good electric contact between wire
and contact tip
to assure a smooth feed of the wire through the
guide tube, feed rolls and contact tip (decrease
contact tube wear)
to provide protection against corrosion
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Welding Coordinator
Non Destructive Testing
Section 15
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Non-Destructive Testing
A welding inspector should have a working knowledge of
NDT methods and their applications, advantages and
disadvantages.
Four basic NDT methods
Radiographic inspection (RT)
Ultrasonic inspection (UT)
Magnetic particle inspection (MT)
Dye penetrant inspection (PT)

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Non-Destructive Testing
Surface Crack Detection
Liquid Penetrant (PT or Dye-Penetrant)
Magnetic Particle Inspection (MT or MPI)
Volumetric & Planar Inspection
Ultrasonics (UT)
Radiography (RT)
Each technique has advantages & disadvantages with respect
to:
Technical Capability and Cost
Note: The choice of NDT techniques is based on consideration
of these advantages and disadvantages
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Radiographic Testing (RT)
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The principles of radiography
X or Gamma radiation is imposed upon a test object
Radiation is transmitted to varying degrees
dependant upon the density of the material through
which it is travelling
Thinner areas and materials of a less density show as
darker areas on the radiograph
Thicker areas and materials of a greater density show
as lighter areas on a radiograph
Applicable to metals,non-metals and composites
Radiographic Testing
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X Rays
Electrically generated
Gamma Rays
Generated by the decay
of unstable atoms
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Source
Radiation beam
Image quality indicator
Radiographic film with latent image after exposure
Test specimen
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Density - relates to the degree of darkness

Contrast - relates to the degree of difference
Definition - relates to the degree of sharpness
Sensitivity - relates to the overall quality of the radiograph
Densitometer
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7FE12
Step / Hole type IQI
Wire type IQI
Radiographic Sensitivity
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Wire Type IQI
Step/Hole Type IQI
Radiographic Sensitivity
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Single Wall Single Image (SWSI)
film inside, source outside
Single Wall Single Image (SWSI) panoramic
film outside, source inside (internal exposure)
Double Wall Single Image (DWSI)
film outside, source outside (external exposure)
Double Wall Double Image (DWDI)
film outside, source outside (elliptical exposure)
Radiographic Techniques
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IQIs should be placed source side
Film
Film
Single Wall Single Image (SWSI)
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IQIs are placed on the film side
Source inside film outside (single exposure)
Film
Single Wall Single Image Panoramic
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IQIs are placed on the film side
Source outside film outside (multiple exposure)
This technique is intended for pipe diameters
over 100mm
Film
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Radiograph
Identification
ID MR11
Unique identification
EN W10
IQI placing
A
B
Pitch marks indicating
readable film length
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Radiograph
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Film
IQIs are placed on the source or film side
Source outside film outside (multiple exposure)
A minimum of two exposures
This technique is intended for pipe diameters less than 100mm
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Shot A Radiograph
Identification
ID MR12
Unique identification
EN W10
IQI placing
1 2
Pitch marks indicating
readable film length
4 3
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Elliptical Radiograph
1
2
4 3
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Radiography
PENETRATING POWER
Question:
What determines the penetrating power of an X-ray ?
the kilo-voltage applied (between anode & cathode)
Question:
What determines the penetrating power of a gamma ray ?
the type of isotope (the wavelength of the gamma rays)
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Radiography
GAMMA SOURCES
Isotope Typical Thickness Range
Iridium 192 10 to 50 mm (mostly used)
Cobalt 60 > 50 mm
Ytterbium < 10 mm
Thulium < 10 mm
Cesium < 10 mm
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Advantages
Permanent record
Little surface preparation
Defect identification
No material type limitation
Not so reliant upon operator
skill
Thin materials
Disadvantages
Expensive consumables
Bulky equipment
Harmful radiation
Defect require significant
depth in relation to the
radiation beam (not good
for planar defects)
Slow results
Very little indication of
depths
Access to both sides
required
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Comparison with Ultrasonic Examination
ADVANTAGES
good for non-planar defects
good for thin sections
gives permanent record
easier for 2nd party interpretation
can use on all material types
high productivity
direct image of imperfections

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Comparison with Ultrasonic Examination
DISADVANTAGES
health & safety hazard
not good for thick sections
high capital and relatively high running costs
not good for planar defects
X-ray sets not very portable
requires access to both sides of weld
frequent replacement of gamma source needed (half life)

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Ultrasonic Testing (UT)
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Main Features:
Surface and sub-surface detection
This detection method uses high frequency sound waves,
typically above 2MHz to pass through a material
A probe is used which contains a piezo electric crystal to
transmit and receive ultrasonic pulses and display the
signals on a cathode ray tube or digital display
The actual display relates to the time taken for the
ultrasonic pulses to travel the distance to the interface and
back
An interface could be the back of a plate material or a defect
For ultrasound to enter a material a couplant must be
introduced between the probe and specimen
Ultrasonic Testing
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Digital
UT Set,
Pulse echo
signals
A scan
Display
Compression probe checking the material Thickness
Ultrasonic Testing
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defect
0 10 20 30 40 50
defect
echo
Back wall
echo
CRT Display Compression Probe
Material Thk
initial pulse
Ultrasonic Testing
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Angle Probe
UT Set
A Scan
Display
Ultrasonic Testing
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initial pulse
defect echo
defect defect
defect
0 10 20 30 40 50
CRT Display
0 10 20 30 40 50
initial pulse
defect echo
CRT Display
Skip
Full Skip
Ultrasonic Testing
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Advantages
Rapid results
Both surface and
sub-surface detection
Safe
Capable of measuring the
depth of defects
May be battery powered
Portable
Disadvantages
Trained and skilled operator
required
Requires high operator skill
Good surface finish required
Defect identification
Couplant may contaminate
No permanent record
Calibration Required
Ferritic Material (Mostly)
Ultrasonic Testing
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Ultrasonic Testing
Comparison with Radiography
ADVANTAGES
good for planar defects
good for thick sections
instant results
can use on complex joints
can automate
very portable
no safety problems (parallel working is possible)
low capital & running costs
May 9, 2014 484 of 691
Ultrasonic Testing
Comparison with Radiography
DISADVANTAGES
no permanent record (with standard equipment)
not suitable for very thin joints <8mm
reliant on operator interpretation
not good for sizing Porosity
good/smooth surface profile needed
not suitable for coarse grain materials (e.g., castings)
Ferritic Materials (with standard equipment)

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Magnetic Particle testing (MT)
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Magnetic Particle Testing
Main features:
Surface and slight sub-surface detection
Relies on magnetization of component being tested
Only Ferro-magnetic materials can be tested
A magnetic field is introduced into a specimen being
tested
Methods of applying a magnetic field, yoke, permanent
magnet, prods and flexible cables.
Fine particles of iron powder are applied to the test area
Any defect which interrupts the magnetic field, will create
a leakage field, which attracts the particles
Any defect will show up as either a dark indication or in
the case of fluorescent particles under UV-A light a
green/yellow indication
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Electro-magnet (yoke) DC or AC
Prods DC or AC
Collection of ink
particles due to
leakage field
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A crack like
indication
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Alternatively to contrast inks, fluorescent inks may be used
for greater sensitivity. These inks require a UV-A light source
and a darkened viewing area to inspect the component
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Typical sequence of operations to inspect a weld
Clean area to be tested
Apply contrast paint
Apply magnetisism to the component
Apply ferro-magnetic ink to the component during
magnatising
Iterpret the test area
Post clean and de-magnatise if required
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Advantages
Simple to use
Inexpensive
Rapid results
Little surface preparation
required
Possible to inspect through
thin coatings
Disadvantages
Surface or slight sub-surface
detection only
Magnetic materials only
No indication of defects
depths
Only suitable for linear
defects
Detection is required in two
directions
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Comparison with Penetrant Testing
ADVANTAGES
much quicker than PT
instant results
can detect near-surface imperfections (by current flow
technique)
less surface preparation needed
DISADVANTAGES
only suitable for ferromagnetic materials
electrical power for most techniques
may need to de-magnetise (machine components)
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Penetrant Testing (PT)
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Penetrant Testing
Main features:
Detection of surface breaking defects only.
This test method uses the forces of capillary action
Applicable on any material type, as long they are non
porous.
Penetrants are available in many different types:
Water washable contrast
Solvent removable contrast
Water washable fluorescent
Solvent removable fluorescent
Post-emulsifiable fluorescent
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Step 1. Pre-Cleaning
Ensure surface is very Clean normally with the use of a solvent
Penetrant Testing
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Step 2. Apply penetrant
After the application, the penetrant is normally left on the
components surface for approximately 15-20 minutes (dwell
time).
The penetrant enters any defects that may be present by
capillary action.
Penetrant Testing
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Step 3. Clean off penetrant
the penetrant is removed after sufficient penetration time (dwell
time).
Care must be taken not to wash any penetrant out off any
defects present
Penetrant Testing
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Step 3. Apply developer
After the penetrant has be cleaned sufficiently, a thin layer of
developer is applied.
The developer acts as a contrast against the penetrant and
allows for reverse capillary action to take place.
Penetrant Testing
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Step 4. Inspection / development time
Inspection should take place immediately after the developer
has been applied.
any defects present will show as a bleed out during
development time.
After full inspection has been carried out post cleaning is
generally required.
Penetrant Testing
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Colour contrast Penetrant
Fluorescent Penetrant
Bleed out viewed
under a UV-A light
source
Bleed out viewed
under white light
Penetrant Testing
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Penetrant Testing
Advantages
Simple to use
Inexpensive
Quick results
Can be used on any non-
porous material
Portability
Low operator skill required
Disadvantages
Surface breaking defect
only
little indication of depths
Penetrant may
contaminate component
Surface preparation critical
Post cleaning required
Potentially hazardous
chemicals
Can not test unlimited
times
Temperature dependant
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Penetrant Testing
Comparison with Magnetic Particle Inspection
ADVANTAGES
easy to interpret results
no power requirements
relatively little training required
can use on all materials
DISADVANTAGES
good surface finish needed
relatively slow
chemicals - health & safety issue
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Welding Coordinator
Weld Repairs
Section 16
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Weld Repairs
Weld repairs can be divided into 2 specific
areas:
Production repairs
In service repairs

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A weld repair can be a relatively straight forward
activity, but in many instances it is quite complex, and
various engineering disciplines may need to be involved
to ensure a successful outcome.
Analysis of the defect types may be carried out by
the Q/C department to discover the likely reason for
their occurrence, (Material/Process or Skill related).

In general terms, a welding repair involves What!
Weld Repairs
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Weld Repairs
A weld repair may be used to improve weld profiles or
extensive metal removal:
Repairs to fabrication defects are generally easier
than repairs to service failures because the repair
procedure may be followed
The main problem with repairing a weld is the
maintenance of mechanical properties
During the inspection of the removed area prior to
welding the inspector must ensure that the defects
have been totally removed and the original joint
profile has been maintained as close as possible
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Weld Repairs
In the event of repair, it is required:
Authorization and procedure for repair
Removal of material and preparation for repair
Monitoring of repair Weld
Testing of repair - visual and NDT
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There are a number of key factors that need to be
considered before undertaking any repair:
The most important - is it financially worthwhile?
Can structural integrity be achieved if the item is repaired?
Are there any alternatives to welding?
What caused the defect and is it likely to happen again?
How is the defect to be removed and what welding process
is to be used?
What NDE is required to ensure complete removal of the
defect?
Will the welding procedures require approval/re-approval?
Weld Repairs
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Weld Repairs
Cleaning the repair area, (removal of paint, grease, etc)
A detailed assessment to find out the extremity of the
defect. This may involve the use of a surface or sub surface
NDE method.
Once established the excavation site must be clearly
identified and marked out.
An excavation procedure may be required (method used
i.e. grinding, arc-air gouging, preheat requirements etc).
NDE should be used to locate the defect and confirm its
removal.
A welding repair procedure/method statement with the
appropriate welding process, consumable, technique,
controlled heat input and interpass temperatures etc will
need to be approved.
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Use of approved welders.
Dressing the weld and final visual.
A NDT procedure/technique prepared and carried out to
ensure that the defect has been successfully removed and
repaired.
Any post repair heat treatment requirements.
Final NDT procedure/technique prepared and carried out
after heat treatment requirements.
Applying protective treatments (painting etc as required).
(*Appropriate means suitable for the alloys being repaired
and may not apply in specific situations)
Weld Repairs
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What will be the effect of welding distortion and
residual stress?
Will heat treatment be required?
What NDE is required and how can acceptability of the
repair be demonstrated?
Will approval of the repair be required if yes, how
and by whom?

Weld Repairs
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Production Weld Repairs
Before the repair can commence, a number of elements need
to be fulfilled:
If the defect is surface breaking and has occurred at the fusion
face the problem could be cracking or lack of sidewall fusion.
If the defect is found to be cracking the cause may be
associated with the material or the welding procedure
If the defect is lack of sidewall fusion this can be apportioned
to the lack of skill of the welder.
In this particular case as the defect is open to the surface, MPI
or DYE-PEN may be used to gauge the length of the defect and
U/T inspection used to gauge the depth.

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Weld Repairs
The specification or procedure will govern how the
defective areas are to be removed. The method of
removal may be:
Grinding
Chipping
Machining
Filing
Oxy-Gas gouging
Arc air gouging
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Defect Excavation
Arc-air gouging
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Arc-air gouging features
Operate ONLY on DCEP
Special gouging copper
coated carbon electrode
Can be used on carbon
and low alloy steels,
austenitic stainless steels
and non-ferrous materials
Requires CLEAN/DRY
compressed air supply
Provides fast rate of metal removal
Can remove complex shape defects
After gouging, grinding of carbured layer is mandatory
Gouging doesnt require a qualified welder!
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Production Repairs
are usually identified during production
inspection
evaluation of the reports is usually carried out
by the Welding Inspector, or NDT operator
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Plan View of defect
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Side View of defect excavation
D
W
Side View of repair welding
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In Service Weld Repairs
In service repairs
Can be of a very complex nature, as the component is
very likely to be in a different welding position and
condition than it was during production
It may also have been in contact with toxic, or
combustible fluids hence a permit to work will need to
be sought prior to any work being carried out
The repair welding procedure may look very different
to the original production procedure due to changes in
these elements.
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In Service Weld Repairs
Other factors to be taken into consideration:
Effect of heat on any surrounding areas of the
component i.e. electrical components, or materials that
may become damaged by the repair procedure.
This may also include difficulty in carrying out any
required pre or post welding heat treatments and a
possible restriction of access to the area to be
repaired.
For large fabrications it is likely that the repair must
also take place on site and without a shut down of
operations, which may bring other elements that need
to be considered.
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Is welding the best method of repair?
Is the repair really like earlier repairs?
What is the composition and weldability of the base metal?
What strength is required from the repair?
Can preheat be tolerated?
Can softening or hardening of the HAZ be tolerated?
Is PWHT necessary and practicable?
Will the fatigue resistance of the repair be adequate?
Will the repair resist its environment?
Can the repair be inspected and tested?

Weld Repairs
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Weld repair related problems
heat from welding may affect dimensional stability
and/or mechanical properties of repaired assembly
due to heat from welding, YS goes down, danger of
collapse
filler materials used on dissimilar welds may lead to
galvanic corrosion
local preheat may induce residual stresses
cost of weld metal deposited during a weld joint
repair can reach up to 10 times the original weld
metal cost!
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Welding Coordinator
Residual Stress & Distortion
Section 17
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Residual stress
Residual stresses are undesirable because:
they lead to distortion
they affect dimensional stability of the
welded assembly
they enhance the risk of brittle fracture
they can facilitate certain types of
corrosion
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The heating and subsequent cooling from welding produces
expansion and contractions which affect the weld metal and
adjacent material.
If this contraction is prevented or inhibited residual stress will
develop.
The tendency to develop residual stresses increases when the
heating and cooling is localised.
Residual stresses are very difficult to measure with any real
accuracy.
Residual stresses are self balancing internal forces and not
stresses induced whilst applying external load
Stresses are more concentrated at the surface of the
component.
The removal of residual stresses is termed stress relieving.
Residual Stresses
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Normal Stress
Stress arising from a force perpendicular to the
cross sectional area
Compression
Tension
Stresses
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Shear Stress
Stress arising from forces which are parallel to, and
lie in the plane of the cross sectional area.
Shear Stress
Stresses
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Hoop Stress
Internal stress acting on the wall a pipe or cylinder
due to internal pressure.
Hoop Stress
Stresses
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Longitudinal
Along the weld longitudinal residual stresses
Transverse
Across the weld transverse residual stresses
Short Transverse
Through the weld short transverse residual stresses
Residual stresses occur in welds in the following directions
Residual Stresses
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Residual stress
Heating and
cooling causes
expansion and
contraction
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Residual stress
In case of a heated
bar, the resistance
of the surrounding
material to the
expansion and
contraction leads
to formation of
residual stress
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1. Residual stresses are locked in elastic strain, which is
caused by local expansion and contraction in the weld
area.
2. Residual stresses should be removed from structures
after welding.
3. The amount of contraction is controlled by, the volume of
weld metal in the joint, the thickness, heat input, joint
design and the materials properties
4. Offsetting may be used to finalise the position of the joint.
5. If plates or pipes are prevented from moving by tacking,
clamping or jigging etc (restraint), then the amount of
residual stresses that remain will be higher.
Summary
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6. The movement caused by welding related stresses is
called distortion.
7. The directions of contractional stresses and distortion is
very complex, as is the amount and type of final distortion,
however we can say that there are three directions:
a. Longitudinal b. Transverse c. Short transverse
8. A high percentage of residual stresses can be removed by
heat treatments.
9. The peening of weld faces will only redistribute the
residual stress, and place the weld face in compression.
Summary
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Types of distortion
Angular distortion
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Angular Distortion
Bowing Distortion
Longitudinal Distortion
Transverse Distortion
Distortion
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Factors which affect distortion
Material properties and condition
Heat input
The amount of restrain
The amount of weld metal deposited
Distortion
Control of distortion my be achieved in the following way:
The used of a different joint design
Presetting the joints to be welded so that the metal distorts
into the required position.
The use of a balanced welding technique
The use of clamps, jigs and fixtures.
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Distortion will occur in all welded joints if the material are
free to move i.e. not restrained
Restrained materials result in low distortion but high
residual stress
More than one type of distortion may occur at one time
Highly restrained joints also have a higher crack tendency
than joints of a low restraint
The action of residual stress in welded joints is to cause
distortion
Distortion
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Distortion
Factors affecting distortion:
parent material properties
amount of restrain
joint design
fit-up
welding sequence
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Factors affecting distortion
Parent material properties:
thermal expansion coefficient - the greater the value, the
greater the residual stress
yield strength - the greater the value, the greater the
residual stress
Youngs modulus - the greater the value (increase in
stiffness), the greater the residual stress
thermal conductivity - the higher the value, the lower the
residual stress
transformation temperature - during phase
transformation, expansion/contraction takes place. The
lower the transformation temperature, the lower the
residual stress
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Joint design:
weld metal volume
type of joint - butt vs. fillet, single vs. double side
Amount of restrain:
thickness - as thickness increase, so do the stresses
high level of restrain lead to high stresses
preheat may increase the level of stresses (pipe
welding!)
Fit-up:
misalignment may reduce stresses in some cases
root gap - increase in root gap increases shrinkage
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Welding sequence:
number of passes - every pass adds to the total
contraction
heat input - the higher the heat input, the greater
the shrinkage
travel speed - the faster the welding speed, the
less the stress
build-up sequence
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Distortion prevention
Distortion prevention by pre-setting
a) pre-setting of fillet joint to
prevent angular distortion
b) pre-setting of butt joint to
prevent angular distortion
c) tapered gap to prevent
closure
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Pre-set or Offsetting:
The amount of offsetting required is generally a function of
trial and error.
Distortion
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Distortion prevention by pre-bending
using strongbacks and wedges
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Clamping and jigging:
The materials to be welded are prevented from moving by the
clamp or jig the main advantage of using a jig is that the
elements in a fabrication can be precisely located in the
position to be welded. Main disadvantage of jigging is high
restraint and high levels of residual stresses.
Distortion
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Distortion prevention by restraint techniques
a) use of welding jigs
b) use of flexible
clamps
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Distortion prevention by restraint techniques
c) use of strongbacks
with wedges
d) use of fully welded
strongbacks
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Distortion prevention by design
Consider eliminating the welding!!
a) by forming the plate
b) by use of rolled or extruded sections
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consider weld placement
reduce weld metal volume
and/or number of runs
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The volume of weld metal in a joint will affect the amount of
local expansion and contraction, hence the more weld
deposited the higher amount of distortion
Preparation angle 60
o
Preparation angle 40
o
Preparation angle 0
o
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use of balanced welding
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- Transverse Shrinkage
Fillet Welds 0.8mm per weld where the leg length
does not exceed 3/4 plate thickness
Butt weld 1.5 to 3mm per weld for 60 V joint,
depending on number of runs
- Longitudinal Shrinkage
Fillet Welds 0.8mm per 3m of weld
Butt Welds 3mm per 3m of weld
Allowances to cover shrinkage
Distortions prevention by design
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Distortion prevention by fabrication techniques
tack welding
a) tack weld straight through
to end of joint
b) tack weld one end, then use
back-step technique for
tacking the rest of the joint
c) tack weld the centre, then
complete the tack welding
by the back-step technique
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back to back assembly
a) assemblies tacked together
before welding
b) use of wedges for
components that distort on
separation after welding
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use of stiffeners
control welding process by:
- deposit the weld metal as quickly as possible
- use the least number of runs to fill the joint
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Distortion prevention by welding procedure
reduce the number of
runs required to make a
weld (e.g. angular
distortion as a function
of number of runs for a
10 mm leg length weld)
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control welding techniques by use
balanced welding about the neutral axis
control welding techniques by keeping
the time between runs to a minimum
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control welding techniques by
a) Back-step welding
b) Skip welding
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Back-skip welding technique
Back-step welding technique
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
1. 2. 3. 6. 4. 5.
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Distortion - Best practice for fabrication corrective techniques
using tack welds to set up and maintain the joint gap
identical components welded back to back so welding can be
balanced about the neutral axis
attachment of longitudinal stiffeners to prevent longitudinal
bowing in butt welds of thin plate structures
where there is choice of welding procedure, process and
technique should aim to deposit the weld metal as quickly as
possible; MIG in preference to MMA or gas welding and
mechanised rather than manual welding
in long runs, the whole weld should not be completed in one
direction; back-step or skip welding techniques should be used
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Distortion corrective techniques
Distortion - mechanical corrective techniques
Use of press to correct bowing in T butt joint
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Distortion - Best practice for mechanical corrective techniques
Use packing pieces which will over correct the distortion so
that spring-back will return the component to the correct shape
Check that the component is adequately supported during
pressing to prevent buckling
Use a former (or rolling) to achieve a straight component or
produce a curvature
As unsecured packing pieces may fly out from the press, the
following safe practice must be adopted:
- bolt the packing pieces to the platen
- place a metal plate of adequate thickness to intercept the
'missile'
- clear personnel from the hazard area
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Distortion - thermal corrective techniques
Localised heating to
correct distortion
Spot heating for
correcting buckling
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Line heating to correct angular
distortion in a fillet weld
Use of wedge shaped heating
to straighten plate
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Wedge shaped heating to correct distortion
a) standard rolled
steel section
b) buckled edge of
plate
c) box fabrication
General guidelines:
Length of wedge = two-thirds of the plate width
Width of wedge (base) = one sixth of its length (base to apex)
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use spot heating to remove buckling in thin sheet structures
other than in spot heating of thin panels, use a wedge-shaped
heating technique
use line heating to correct angular distortion in plate
restrict the area of heating to avoid over-shrinking the component
limit the temperature to 60 to 650C (dull red heat) in steels to
prevent metallurgical damage
in wedge heating, heat from the base to the apex of the wedge,
penetrate evenly through the plate thickness and maintain an even
temperature
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Welding Coordinator
Heat Treatment
Section 18
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Heat Treatment
Why?
Improve mechanical properties
Change microstructure
Reduce residual stress level
Change chemical composition
How?
Flame oven
Electric oven/electric heating blankets
induction/HF heating elements
Where? Local Global
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Heat Treatments
Many metals must be given heat treatment before and
after welding.
The inspectors function is to ensure that the treatment
is given correctly in accordance with the specification or
as per the details supplied.
Types of heat treatment available:
Preheat
Annealing
Normalising
Quench Hardening
Temper
Stress Relief
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Heat Treatments
Pre-heat treatments
are used to increase weldability, by reducing sudden
reduction of temperature, and control expansion and
contraction forces during welding

Post weld heat treatments
are used to change the properties of the weld metal,
controlling the formation of crystalline structures

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Post Weld -Heat Treatments
Post Hydrogen Release (according to BS EN1011-2)
Temperature: Approximately 250C hold up to 3 hours
Cooling: Slow cool in air
Result: Relieves residual hydrogen
Procedure: Maintaining pre-heat / interpass temperature
after completion of welding for 2 to 3 hours.
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Post Weld Heat Treatments
(A) Normalised
(B) Fully Annealed
(C) Water-quenched
(D) Water-quenched & tempered
A B
C D
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Post Weld Heat Treatments
The inspector, in general, should ensure that:
Equipment is as specified
Temperature control equipment is in good condition
Procedures as specified, is being used e.g.
o Method of application
o Rate of heating and cooling
o Maximum temperature
o Soak time
o Temperature measurement (and calibration)
DOCUMENTATION AND RECORDS
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Post Weld Heat Treatment Cycle
Time
Temperature
SoakingTemperature
and time at the
attained temperature
Heating Soaking Cooling
heating rate Cooling rate
Variables for heat treatment process must be carefully controlled
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Post Weld Heat Treatment
Removal of Residual Stress
Temperature (C)
100 200 300 400 500 600 700
Yield
Strength
(N/mm
2
)
100
200
300
400
500
Cr-Mo steel - typical
C-Mn steel - typical
At PWHT temp. the yield
strength of steel reduced
so that it it is not strong
enough to give restraint.
Residual stress reduced
to very low level by
straining (typically < ~
0.5% strain)
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Heat Treatment
Recommendations
Provide adequate support (low YS at high temperature!)
Control heating rate to avoid uneven thermal expansions
Control soak time to equalise temperatures
Control temperature gradients - NO direct flame
impingement!
Control furnace atmosphere to reduce scaling
Control cooling rate to avoid brittle structure formation
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Post Weld Heat Treatment Methods
Gas furnace heat treatment
Advantages:
Easy to set up
Good portability
repeatability and
temperature uniformity

Disadvantages:
Limited to size of parts
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HF (Induction) local heat treatment
Advantages:
High heating rates
Ability to heat a
narrow band

Disadvantages:
High equipment
cost
Large equipment,
less portable

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Local heat treatment using
electric heating blankets
Advantages:
Ability to vary
heat
Ability to
continuously
maintain heat

Disadvantages:
Elements may
burn out or arcing
during heating

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Welding Coordinator
Cutting Processes
Section 19
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Use of gas flame
Welding Gouging Brazing
Heating Straightening
Cutting
Blasting Spraying
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Oxygen regulator Fuel gas regulator
Regulators
Regulator
type
Single stage
Two stage
used when slight rise in delivery
pressure from full to empty cylinder
condition can be tolerated
used when a constant delivery
pressure from full to empty
cylinder condition is required
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Flashback arrestors
Flashback - recession of the flame into or back of the mixing chamber
Flashback
flame
quenched
at the
flashback
barrier
Flame
barrie
r
Built-
in
check
valve
Normal
flow
Reverse
flow
Flashback
Built-in
check
valve
stops
reverse
flow
SAFETY SAFETY SAFETY
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A jet of pure oxygen reacts with iron, that has been
preheated to its ignition point, to produce the
oxide Fe
3
O
4
by exothermic reaction.This oxide is
then blown through the material by the velocity of
the oxygen stream
Different types of fuel gases may be used for the
pre-heating flame in oxy fuel gas cutting: i.e.
acetylene, hydrogen, propane. etc
By adding iron powder to the flame we are able
to cut most metals - Iron Powder Injection
The high intensity of heat and rapid cooling will
cause hardening in low alloy and medium/high C
steels they are thus pre-heated to avoid the
hardening effect
Oxyfuel gas cutting process
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Oxyfuel gas cutting equipment
The cutting torch
Neutral cutting flame
Neutral cutting flame with
oxygen cutting stream
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Oxyfuel gas cutting related terms
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Oxyfuel gas cutting quality
Good cut - sharp top edge, fine and even drag lines,
little oxide and a sharp bottom edge
Cut too fast -
pronounced break in
the drag line,
irregular cut edge
Cut too slow - top edge is
melted, deep groves in the
lower portion, heavy scaling,
rough bottom edge
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Preheat flame too high -
top edge is melted,
irregular cut, excess of
adherent dross
Preheat flame too low -
deep groves in the lower
part of the cut face
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Irregular travel speed - uneven
space between drag lines,
irregular bottom with adherent
oxide
Nozzle is too high above
the works - excessive
melting of the top edge,
much oxide
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Mechanised oxyfuel cutting
can use portable carriages or gantry type machines
and obtain high productivity
accurate cutting for complicate shapes
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OFW/C advantages/disadvantages
Disadvantages:
1) High skill factor
2) Wide HAZ
4) Slow process
5) Limited range of
consumables
3) Safety issues
Advantages:
1) No need for power
supply, portable
3) Low equipment cost
4) Can cut carbon and low
alloy steels
5) Good on thin materials
2) Versatile: preheat,
brazing, surfacing, repair,
straightening
6) Not suitable for reactive
& refractory metals
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Special oxyfuel operations
Gouging
Rivet cutting
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Special oxyfuel operations
Thin sheet cutting
Rivet washing
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Cutting Processes
Plasma arc cutting
Uses high velocity jet of ionised gas
through a constricted nozzle to remove the
molten metal
Uses a tungsten electrode and water
cooled nozzle
High quality cutting
High intensity and UV radiation EYES !
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Cutting Processes
Air-arc for cutting or gouging
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Air-arc gouging features
Operate ONLY on DCEP
Special gouging copper
coated carbon electrode
Can be used on carbon
and low alloy steels,
austenitic stainless steels
and non-ferrous materials
Requires CLEAN/DRY
compressed air supply
Provides fast rate of metal removal
Can remove complex shape defects
After gouging, grinding of carbured layer is mandatory
Gouging doesnt require a qualified welder!
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Welding Coordinator
Arc Welding Safety
Please discuss
Section 20
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Safety
Electrical safety
Heat & Light
Visible light
UV radiation - effects on
skin and eyes
Fumes & Explosive
Gasses
Noise levels
Fire Hazards
Scaffolding & Staging
Slips, trips and falls
Protection of others from
exposure

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Welding Coordinator
Weldability Of Steels
Section 21
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Weldability of Steels
Definition
It relates to the ability of the metal (or alloy) to be welded with
mechanical soundness by most of the common welding
processes, and the resulting welded joint retain the
properties for which it has been designed.
is a function of many inter-related factors but these may be
summarised as:
Composition of parent material
Joint design and size
Process and technique
Access
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Weldability of Steels
The weldability of steel is mainly dependant on carbon & other alloying
elements content.
If a material has limited weldability, we need to take special measures
to ensure the maintenance of the properties required
Poor weldability normally results in the occurrence of cracking
A steel is considered to have poor weldability when:
an acceptable joint can only be made by using very narrow range
of welding conditions
great precautions to avoid cracking are essential (e.g., high pre-
heat etc)
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The Effect of Alloying on Steels
Elements may be added to steels to produce the
properties required to make it useful for an application.
Most elements can have many effects on the properties
of steels.
Other factors which affect material properties are:
The temperature reached before and during welding
Heat input
The cooling rate after welding and or PWHT
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Iron (Fe): Main steel constituent. On its own, is relatively soft, ductile, with low
strength.
Carbon (C): Major alloying element in steels, a strengthening element with
major influence on HAZ hardness. Decreases weldability.
typically < ~ 0.25%
Manganese (Mn): Secondary only to carbon for strength, toughness and
ductility, secondary de-oxidiser and also reacts with sulphur to form
manganese sulphide.
< ~0.8% is residual from steel de-oxidation
up to ~1.6% (in C-Mn steels) improves strength & toughness
Silicon (Si): Residual element from steel de-oxidation.
typically to ~0.35%
Steel Alloying Elements
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Phosphorus (P): Residual element from steel-making minerals. difficult to
reduce below < ~ 0.015% brittleness
Sulphur (S): Residual element from steel-making minerals
< ~ 0.015% in modern steels
< ~ 0.003% in very clean steels
Aluminium (Al): De-oxidant and grain size control
typically ~ 0.02 to ~ 0.05%
Chromium (Cr): For creep resistance & oxidation (scaling) resistance for
elevated temperature service. Widely used in stainless steels for
corrosion resistance, increases hardness and strength but reduces
ductility.
typically ~ 1 to 9% in low alloy steels
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Nickel (Ni): Used in stainless steels, high resistance to corrosion from
acids, increases strength and toughness
Molybdenum (Mo): Affects hardenability. Steels containing
molybdenum are less susceptible to temper brittleness than
other alloy steels. Increases the high temperature tensile and
creep strengths of steel. typically ~ 0.5 to 1.0%
Niobium (Nb): a grain refiner, typically~ 0.05%
Vanadium (V): a grain refiner, typically ~ 0.05%
Titanium (Ti): a grain refiner, typically ~ 0.05%
Copper (Cu): present as a residual, (typically < ~ 0.30%)
added to weathering steels (~ 0.6%) to give better resistance
to atmospheric corrosion
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Classification of Steels
Mild steel (CE < 0.4)
Readily weldable, preheat generally not required if low hydrogen
processes or electrodes are used
Preheat may be required when welding thick section material,
high restraint and with higher levels of hydrogen being
generated

C-Mn, medium carbon, low alloy steels (CE 0.4 to 0.5)
Thin sections can be welded without preheat but thicker sections
will require low preheat levels and low hydrogen processes or
electrodes should be used

Higher carbon and alloyed steels (CE > 0.5)
Preheat, low hydrogen processes or electrodes, post weld
heating and slow cooling may be required

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Process Cracks
Hydrogen Induced HAZ Cracking (C/Mn steels)
Hydrogen Induced Weld Metal Cracking (HSLA steels).
Solidification or Hot Cracking (All steels)
Lamellar Tearing (All steels)
Re-heat Cracking (All steels, very susceptible Cr/Mo/V
steels)
Inter-Crystalline Corrosion or Weld Decay (stainless
steels)
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Cracking
When considering any type of cracking mechanism, three
elements must always be present:
Stress
Residual stress is always present in a weldment,
through unbalanced local expansion and
contraction

Restraint
Restraint may be a local restriction, or through
plates being welded to each other

Susceptible microstructure
The microstructure may be made susceptible to
cracking by the process of welding
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Cracks

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May occur:
up to 48 hrs after completion
In weld metal, HAZ, parent
metal.
At weld toes
Under weld beads
At stress raisers.

Also know as:
Cold Cracking, happens when
the welds cool down.
HAZ cracking, normally occurs
in the HAZ.
Delayed cracking, as it takes
time for the hydrogen to
migrate. 48 Hours normally but
up to 72,
Under-bead cracking, normally
happens in the HAZ under a
weld bead

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There is a risk of hydrogen cracking when all of the 4
factors occur together:
Hydrogen More than 15ml/100g of weld metal
Stress More than the yield stress
Temperature Below 300
o
C
Hardness Greater than 400HV Vickers

Susceptible Microstructure (Martensite)
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Precautions for controlling hydrogen cracking
Pre heat, removes moisture from the joint preparations,
and slows down the cooling rate
Ensure joint preparations are clean and free from
contamination
The use of a low hydrogen welding process and correct
arc length
Ensure all welding is carried out is carried out under
controlled environmental conditions
Ensure good fit-up as to reduced stress
The use of a PWHT
Avoid poor weld profiles
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Hydrogen is the smallest atom known
Hydrogen enters the weld via the arc
Source of hydrogen mainly from moisture pick-up on
the electrodes coating, welding fluxes or from the
consumable gas
H
2
H
2
H
2
H
2
H
2
Moisture on
the electrode
or grease on
the wire
Water vapour
in the air or
in the
shielding gas
Oxide or grease on
the plate
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Hydrogen absorbed
in a long, or
unstable arc
Hydrogen introduced in
weld from consumable,
oils, or paint on plate
Cellulosic electrodes
produce hydrogen as a
shielding gas
Hydrogen
crack
Martensite forms from
H
2
diffuses to in HAZ
H
2
H
2

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Susceptible Microstructure:
Hard brittle structure MARTENSITE Promoted by:
A) High Carbon Content, Carbon Equivalent (CE)

Heat input (Kj/mm) = Amps x Volts x arc time
Run out length x 10
3
(1000)

CEV = %C + Mn + Cr+Mo+V + Ni+Cu
6 5 15
B) high alloy content
C) fast cooling rate: Inadequate Pre-Heating
Cold Material
Thick Material
Low Heat Input.
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Typical locations for Cold Cracking
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HSLA or Micro-Alloyed Steels are high strength steels
(800MPa/N/mm2) that derive their high strength from small
percentage alloying (over-alloyed Weld metal to match the
strength of parent metal)
Typically the level of alloying is in the elements such as
vanadium molybdenum and titanium, nickel and chromium
Strength. are used. It would be impossible to match this micro
alloying in the electrode due to the effect of losses across an
electric arc (Ti burn in the arc)
It is however important to match the strength of the weld to
the strength of the plate, Mn 1.6 Cr Ni Mo
HICC in HSLA steels
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Hydrogen Scales
List of hydrogen scales from BS EN 1011:part 2.
Hydrogen content related to 100 grams of weld
metal deposited.
Scale A High: >15 ml
Scale B Medium: 10 ml - 15 ml
Scale C Low: 5 ml - 10 ml
Scale D Very low: 3 ml - 5 ml
Scale E Ultra-low: < 3 ml
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Potential Hydrogen Level Processes
list of welding processes in order of potential lowest
hydrogen content with regards to 100g of deposited weld
metal.
TIG < 3 ml
MIG < 5 ml
ESW < 5 ml
MMA (Basic Electrodes) < 5 ml
SAW < 10ml
FCAW < 15 ml
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Weldability
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Usually Occurs in Weld Centerline
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Also referred as
Hot Cracking: Occurring at high temperatures while the weld is hot
Centerline cracking: cracks appear down the centre line of the bead.
Crater cracking: Small cracks in weld centers are solidification cracks
Crack type: Solidification cracking
Location: Weld centreline (longitudinal)
Steel types: High sulphur & phosphor concentration in steels.
Susceptible Microstructure: Columnar grains In direction
of solidification
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Factors for solidification cracking
Columnar grain growth with impurities in weld metal (sulphur,
phosphor and carbon)
The amount of stress/restraint
Joint design high depth to width ratios
Liquid iron sulphides are formed around solidifying grains.
High contractional strains are present
High dilution processes are being used.
There is a high carbon content in the weld metal
Most commonly occurring in sub-arc welded joints
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Sulphur in the parent material may dilute in the weld
metal to form iron sulphides (low strength, low
melting point compounds)
During weld metal solidification, columnar crystals
push still liquid iron sulphides in front to the last place
of solidification, weld centerline.
The bonding between the grains which are
themselves under great stress and may now be very
poor to maintain cohesion and a crack will result,
weld centerline.
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Deep, narrower weld bead
On solidification the
bonding between the grains
may now be very poor to
maintain cohesion and a
crack may result
Shallow, wider weld bead
On solidification the
bonding between the
grains may be adequate to
maintain cohesion and a
crack is unlikely to occur
Avoidance
HAZ HAZ
Intergranular liquid film
Columnar
grains
Columnar
grains
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Precautions for controlling solidification cracking
The first steps in eliminating this problem would be to choose a low
dilution process, and change the joint design
Grind and seal in any lamination and avoid further dilution????
Add Manganese to the electrode to form spherical Mn/S which form
between the grain and maintain grain cohesion
As carbon increases the Mn/S ratio required increases
exponentially and is a major factor. Carbon content % should be a
minimised by careful control in electrode and dilution
Limit the heat input, hence low contraction, & minimise restraint
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Precautions for controlling solidification cracking
The use of high manganese and low carbon content
fillers
Minimise the amount of stress / restraint acting on the
joint during welding
The use of high quality parent materials, low levels of
impurities (Phosphor & sulphur)
Clean joint preparations contaminants (oil, grease, paints
and any other sulphur containing product)
Joint design selection depth to width ratios

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Solidification cracking in Austenitic Stainless Steel
particularly prone to solidification cracking
large grain size gives rise to a reduction in grain boundary area
with high concentration of impurities
Austenitic structure very intolerant to contaminants (sulphur,
phosphorous and other impurities).
High coefficient of thermal expansion /Low coefficient of thermal
conductivity, with high resultant residual stress
same precautions against cracking as for plain carbon steels
with extra emphasis on thorough cleaning and high dilution
controls.
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Cracks
Lamellar Tearing

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Lamellar Tearing
Factors for lamellar tearing to occur
Cracks only occur in the rolled plate !
Close to or just outside the HAZ !
Cracks lay parallel to the plate surface and the fusion
boundary of the weld and has a stepped aspect.
Low quality parent materials, high levels of impurities
Joint design, direction of stress
The amount of stress acting across the joint during
welding
Note: very susceptible joints may form lamellar tearing
under very low levels of stress

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Tee fillet weld
Tee butt weld
(double-bevel)
Corner butt weld
(single-bevel)
Susceptible joint types combined with susceptible rolled plate
used to make a joint.

High stresses act in the through thickness direction of the plate
(know as the short transverse direction).

T, K & Y joints normally end up with a tensile residual stress
component in the through thickness direction.
Lamellar Tearing
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Critical area
Critical
area
Critical area
Lamellar Tearing
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Modifying a corner joint to avoid lamellar tearing
Susceptible Non-Susceptible
Prior welding both
plates may be grooved
to avoid lamellar tearing
An open corner joint
may be selected to
avoid lamellar tearing
Lamellar Tearing
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Precautions for controlling lamellar tearing
The use of high quality parent materials, low levels of
impurities
The use of buttering runs
A gap can be left between the horizontal and vertical
members enabling the contraction movement to take
place
Joint design selection
Minimise the amount of stress / restraint acting on the
joint during welding
Hydrogen precautions
Lamellar Tearing
May 9, 2014 638 of 691
Lamellar Tearing
Crack type: Lamellar tearing
Location: Below weld HAZ
Steel types: High sulphur & phosphorous steels
Microstructure: Lamination & Segregation

Occurs when:
High contractional strains are through the short
transverse direction. There is a high sulfur content in
the base metal.
There is low through thickness ductility in the base
metal.
There is high restraint on the work
May 9, 2014 639 of 691
The short tensile test or through thickness test is a
test to determine a materials susceptibility to
lamellar tearing
Friction Welded Caps
Short Tensile Specimen
Through
Thickness
Ductility
Sample of Parent Material
The results are given as a STRA value
Short Transverse Reduction in Area
Short Tensile (Through Thickness) Test
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High contractional
strains
Lamellar tear
Restraint
Lamellar Tearing
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Welding Coordinator
Practical Visual Inspection
Section 22

May 9, 2014 642 of 691
Leg Length Gauge
G.A.L.
S.T.D.
10mm
16mm
L
Throat Thickness Gauge
G.A.L.
S.T.D.
10mm
16mm
Fillet Weld Gauges
May 9, 2014 643 of 691
H
I
-
L
O

S
i
n
g
l
e

P
u
r
p
o
s
e

W
e
l
d
i
n
g

G
a
u
g
e

1
2
3
4
5
6
Root gap
dimension
Internal
alignment
HI-LO Welding Gauge
May 9, 2014 644 of 691
Plate / Pipe Inspection
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Remember in the CSWIP 3.1 Welding Inspectors
examination your are required to conduct a practical
examination of a plate test weld, complete a thumb
print sketch and a final report on your findings
Time allowed 1 hour and 15 minutes
The code is provided
Plate Inspection Examination
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1) Use a pencil for the arrow lines, but make all
written comments and measurements in ink
only
3) Do not forget to compare and sentence your
report
2) Report everything that you can observe
4) Do not forget to date & sign your report
5) Make any observations, such as
recommendations for further investigation for
crack-like imperfections.
Plate Inspection Points
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After you have observed an imperfection and
determined its type, you must be able to take
measurements and complete the thumb print report
sketch
The first thumb print report sketch should be in the
form of a repair map of the weld. (i.e. All
observations are Identified Sized and Located)
The thumb print report sketch used in CSWIP exam
will look like the following example.

Plate Thumb Print Report
May 9, 2014 648 of 691
After you have completed your thumb print report
sketch of your test plate the next step is to complete
your final report again the report must be completed in
ink (no pencil).
The report must be completed to your thumb print
sketch, do not leave any boxes empty, every box must
be completed or dashed out. You must also make any
comments you feel are necessary regarding any
defects observed.
The report form used in CSWIP will look like the
following example.
Plate Inspection Final Report
May 9, 2014 649 of 691
Remember in the CSWIP 3.1 Welding Inspectors
examination your are required to conduct a
practical examination of a pipe test weld, complete
a thumb print sketch and a final report on your
findings
Time allowed 1 hour and 45 minutes
The code is nominated e.g API 1104
Pipe Inspection
May 9, 2014 650 of 691
Welding Coordinator
Application & Control of Pre heat
Section 23

May 9, 2014 651 of 691
Welding Temperatures
Definitions
Preheat temperature
is the temperature of the workpiece in the weld zone immediately
before any welding operation (including tack welding!)
normally expressed as a minimum Interpass temperature
is the temperature in a multi-run weld and adjacent parent metal
immediately prior to the application of the next run
normally expressed as a maximum
Minimum interpass temperature = Preheat temperature
Pre heat maintenance temperature = the minimum temperature in the
weld zone which shall be maintained if welding is interrupted and shall be
monitored during the interruption.
May 9, 2014 652 of 691
Pre-heat Application
Furnace - Heating entire component - best
Electrical elements -Controllable; Portable; Site use; Clean;
Component cannot be moved.
Gas burners - direct flame impingement; Possible local
overheating; Less controllable;Portable; Manual operation
possible; Component can be moved.
Radiant gas heaters - capable of automatic control; No flame
impingement; No contact with component; Portable.
Induction heating - controllable; Rapid heating (mins not hours);
Large power supply; Expensive equipment
May 9, 2014 653 of 691
Measuring pre heat in Welding
Parameters to be measured:
welding current
arc voltage
travel speed
shielding gas flow rate
The purposes
of measuring
Demonstration of
conformance to
specified requirements
preheat/interpass
temperature
force/pressure
humidity
Welding
process
control
May 9, 2014 654 of 691
Pre-heat Application
Application Of Preheat
Heat either side of joint
Measure temp 2 mins after heat removal
Always best to heat complete component rather than
local if possible to avoid distortion
Preheat always higher for fillet than butt welds due to
different combined thicknesses and chill effect factors.
May 9, 2014 655 of 691
Manual Gas Operation
Pre-Heat Application
Electrical Heated
Elements
May 9, 2014 656 of 691
Point of Measurement
BS EN ISO 13916
t < 50 mm
A = 4 x t but max. 50 mm
the temperature shall be
measured on the surface
of the workpiece facing the
welder
May 9, 2014 657 of 691
Point of Measurement
BS EN ISO 13916
t > 50mm
A = 75mm minimum
the temperature shall be
measured on the face
opposite to that being
heated
allow 2 min per every 25
mm of parent metal
thickness for temperature
equalisation
May 9, 2014 658 of 691
Combined Thickness
The Chilling Effect of the Joint
May 9, 2014 659 of 691
Combined Thickness
The Chilling Effect of the Joint
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Combined Thickness
Combined chilling effect of joint type and
thickness.
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The Chill Effect of the Material
May 9, 2014 662 of 691
Heating Temperature Control
TEMPILSTICKS - crayons, melt at set temps. Will not
measure max temp.
Pyrometers - contact or remote, measure actual temp.
Thermocouples - contact or attached, very accurate,
measure actual temp.
May 9, 2014 663 of 691
Temperature Test Equipment
Temperature sensitive
materials:
crayons, paints and
pills
cheap
convenient, easy to
use
doesnt measure the
actual temperature!
May 9, 2014 664 of 691
Contact thermometer
Accurate
Easy to use
Gives the actual temperature
Requires calibration
suitable for moderate
temperatures
May 9, 2014 665 of 691
Thermocouple
based on measuring the thermoelectric potential difference
between a hot junction (on weld) and a cold junction
accurate method
measures over a wide range of temperatures
gives the actual temperature
need calibration
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Thermistors
temperature-sensitive resistors
whose resistance varies inversely
with temperature
used when high sensitivity is
required
gives the actual temperature
need calibration
can be used up to 999C
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Temperature test equipment
Devices for contactless measurement
IR radiation and optical
pyrometer
measure the radiant energy
emitted by the hot body
contactless method, can be
used for remote measurements
very complex
for measuring high
temperatures
May 9, 2014 668 of 691
Welding Coordinator
Calibration
Section 24

May 9, 2014 669 of 691
Calibration, validation and monitoring
Definitions:
Measurement = set of operations for determining a value of a
quantity
Repeatability = closeness between successive measuring
results of the same instrument carried out under the same
conditions
Accuracy class = class of measuring instruments that are
intended to keep the errors within specified limits
Calibration = checking the errors in a meter or measuring
device
Validation = checking the control knobs and switches provide
the same level of accuracy when returned to a pre-determined
point
Monitoring = checking the welding parameters (and other
items) are in accordance with the procedure or specification
May 9, 2014 670 of 691
Calibration and validation
Frequency - When it is required?
once a year unless otherwise specified
whenever there are indications that the
instrument does not register properly
whenever the equipment has been
damaged, misused or subject to severe
stress
whenever the equipment has been rebuild
or repaired
See BS EN ISO 17662 for details!
May 9, 2014 671 of 691
Welding parameter calibration/validation
Which parameters need calibration/validation?
depends on the welding process
see BS EN ISO 17662 and BS 7570 for details
How accurate?
depends on the application
welding current - 2,5%
arc voltage - 5%
wire feed speed - 2,5%
gas flow rate - 20% (25% for backing gas flow rate)
temperature (thermocouple) - 5%
May 9, 2014 672 of 691
PAMS (Portable Arc Monitor System)
What does a PAMS measure?
Welding
current (Hall
effect
device)
Arc voltage
(connection
leads)
Temperature
(thermocouple)
Wire feed
speed
(tachometer)
Gas flow
rate
(heating
element
sensor)
May 9, 2014 673 of 691
PAMS (Portable Arc Monitor System)
The purposes of
a PAMS
For calibrating
and validating
the welding
equipment
For measuring
and recording
the welding
parameters
May 9, 2014 674 of 691
Use of PAMS
Wire feed speed
monitoring
Incorporated pair of
rolls connected to a
tachogenerator
May 9, 2014 675 of 691
Use of PAMS
Shielding gas flow
rate monitoring
Heating element
sensor
May 9, 2014 676 of 691
Summary
a welding power source can only be calibrated if it
has meters fitted

the inspector should check for calibration stickers,
dates etc.

a welding power source without meters can only be
validated that the control knobs provide repeatability

the main role is to carryout in process monitoring to
ensure that the welding requirements are met during
production
May 9, 2014 677 of 691
Welding Coordinator
Macro/Micro Examination
Section 25
May 9, 2014 678 of 691
Macro Preparation
Purpose
To examine the weld cross-section to give assurance that: -
The weld has been made in accordance with the WPS
The weld is free from defects
Specimen Preparation
Full thickness slice taken from the weld (typically ~10mm thick)
Width of slice sufficient to show all the weld and HAZ on both sides
plus some unaffected base material
One face ground to a progressively fine finish (grit sizes 120 to ~400)
Prepared face heavily etched to show all weld runs & all HAZ
Prepared face examined at up to x10 (& usually photographed for records)
Prepared face may also be used for a hardness survey
May 9, 2014 679 of 691
Micro Preparation
Purpose
To examine a particular region of the weld or HAZ in order to:-
To examine the microstructure
Identify the nature of a crack or other imperfection
Specimen Preparation
A small piece is cut from the region of interest
(typically up to ~20mm x 20mm)
The piece is mounted in plastic mould and the surface of interest
prepared by progressive grinding (to grit size 600 or 800)
Surface polished on diamond impregnated cloths to a mirror finish
Prepared face may be examined in as-polished condition & then lightly
etched
Prepared face examined under the microscope at up to ~ x 600
May 9, 2014 680 of 691
Macro / Micro Examination
Object:
Macro / microscopic examinations are used to give a
visual evaluation of a cross-section of a welded joint
Carried out on full thickness specimens
The width of the specimen should include HAZ, weld
and parent plate
They maybe cut from a stop/start area on a welders
approval test

May 9, 2014 681 of 691
Macro / Micro Examination
Will Reveal:
Weld soundness
Distribution of inclusions
Number of weld passes
Metallurgical structure of weld, fusion zone and HAZ
Location and depth of penetration of weld
Fillet weld leg and throat dimensions
May 9, 2014 682 of 691
Visual examination for
defects
Cut transverse from the
weld
Ground & polished P400
grit paper
Acid etch using 5-10%
nitric acid solution
Wash and dry
Visual evaluation under 5x
magnification
Report on results
Visual examination for
defects & grain structure
Cut transverse from a
weld
Ground & polished P1200
grit paper, 1m paste
Acid etch using 1-5%
nitric acid solution
Wash and dry
Visual evaluation under
100-1000x magnification
Report on results
Macro Micro
May 9, 2014 683 of 683
Metallographic Examination
Macro examination Micro examination

Responsible Welding Coordinator

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Duties and Responsibilities

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