DAY 6

STRESS
• Stress is a measure of force per unit area
within a body.
• It is a body's internal distribution of force per
area that reacts to external applied loads.

P
STRESS 
A
 ONE DIMENSIONAL STRESS
• Engineering stress / Nominal stress
– The simplest definition of stress, σ = F/A,
where A is the initial cross-sectional area prior
to the application of the load
• True stress
– True stress is an alternative definition in which
the initial area is replaced by the current area

• Relation between Engineering & true stress

 true  (1   e ) e
 TYPES OF STRESSES

TENSILE COMPRESSIVE

BENDING SHEAR

TORSION
 SHEAR STRESS
dx

2 1 xdxdy
B z z A

zdzdy
zdzdy
2 1
dz D
TORSION xdxdy
C

Taking moment about CD, We get

 z dzdy dx    x dxdy dz 
z  x
This implies that if there is a shear in one plane then there will be a shear in
the plane perpendicular to that
 TWO DIMENSIONAL STRESS
• Plane stress y
 yx
 xy
x x
 xy
 yx
y
• Principal stress

x  y  x  y  2
 1, 2       xy
2  2 
 THREE DIMENSIONAL STRESS
• Cauchy stress
– Force per unit area in the deformed geometry
 xx  xy  xz 
 
 ij   yx  yy  yz 
   
 zx zy zz 

• Second Piola Kirchoff stress

– Relates forces in the reference configuration to
area in the reference configuration

S  JX τ X X – Deformation gradient
IJ I, j ij J, i
 3D PRINCIPAL STRESS
• Stress invariants of the Cauchy stress
I1   x   y   z
I 2   x y   y z   z x   xy   yz   zx
2 2 2

I 3   x y z  2 xy yz zx         
2
x yz
2
y zx
2
z xy

• Characteristic equation of 3D principal stress is

  I1  I 2  I 3  0
3 2

• Invariants in terms of principal stress

I1   1   2   3
I 2   1 2   2 3   3 1
I 3   1 2 3
 VON-MISES STRESS
• Based on distortional energy

v 
 1   2  2
  2   3    3   1 
2 2

v 
1
 x   y    y   z    z   x   6 xy2   yz2   zx2 
2 2 2

2
 STRAIN
• Strain is the geometrical expression of deformation
caused by the action of stress on a physical body.
L
Strain 
L
• Strain – displacement relations
Normal Strain
u v w
 x  y  z
x y z

Shear strain (The angular change at any point

between two lines crossing this point in a body can
be measured as a shear (or shape) strain)
u v v w w u
 xy   yz   zx 
y x z y x z
 VOLUMETRIC STRAIN
• Volumetric strain
V  V0

V0

  x  y  z
TWO DIMENSIONAL STRAIN
• Plane strain y
 yx  xy
 xy
x x
 yx
y
• Principal strain

 x y   x y    xy 
 1, 2      
2  2   2 
 3D STRAIN
Strain tensor   xy  xz 
 xx 2 2 

  yx  yz 
 ij   yy
2 2 
 
  zx  zy
 2
 zz 
2 
Green Lagrangian Strain tensor E  1  F F   
ij 2 ki kj ij

1  ui u j uk uk 

   
2  x j xi xi x j 

Almansi Strain tensor

1

E   ij  Fki Fkj
ij 2
-1 1

STRESS-STRAIN CURVE

Mild steel Copper

Thermoplastic
 BEAM
• A STRUCTURAL MEMBER WHOSE THIRD DIMENSION
IS LARGE COMPARED TO THE OTHER TWO
DIMENSIONS AND SUBJECTED TO TRANSVERSE
LOAD

• A BEAM IS A STRUCTURAL MEMBER THAT CARRIES

LOAD PRIMARILY IN BENDING

• A BEAM IS A BAR CAPABLE OF CARRYING LOADS IN

BENDING. THE LOADS ARE APPLIED IN THE
TRANSVERSE DIRECTION TO ITS LONGEST
DIMENSION
 TERMINOLOGY
• SHEAR FORCE
– A shear force in structural mechanics is an example
of an internal force that is induced in a restrained
structural element when external forces are applied

• BENDING MOMENT
– A bending moment in structural mechanics is an
example of an internal moment that is induced in a
restrained structural element when external forces
are applied

• CONTRAFLEXURE
– Location, where no bending takes place in a beam
 TYPES OF BEAMS

• CANTILEVER BEAM
• SIMPLY SUPPORTED BEAM
• FIXED-FIXED BEAM
• OVER HANGING BEAM
• CONTINUOUS BEAM
 BEAMS (Contd…)
• STATICALLY DETERMINATE
• STATICALLY INDETERMINATE

B
A

C D
 BEAM

•TYPES OF BENDING
Hogging
Sagging
 DEFLECTION OF BEAMS
A loaded beam deflects by an amount that depends on several
factors including:

the magnitude and type of loading

the span of the beam

the material properties of the beam (Modulus of Elasticity)

the properties of the shape of the beam (Moment of Inertia)

the beam type (simple, cantilever, overhanging, continuous)

 DEFLECTION OF BEAMS
Deflections of beam can be calculated using
Double integration method
Moment area method
Castiglianos theorem
Stiffness method
Three moment theorem (Continuous beam)
 DOUBLE INTEGRATION
METHOD
From Flexure formula
M 1
 ... (1)
EI R
Radius of curvature d2 y
1 dx 2
 2 3/ 2
... (2)
R   dy  
 1   dx  
   

Ignoring higher order terms

1 d2 y
 2 ... (3)
R dx
From (1) & (3) d2 y
EI 2  M... (4)
dx
 DOUBLE INTEGRATION METHOD
P

Left of load L Right of load

2
d y Px d2 y L 
EI   EI 2  P  x 
dx 2 2 dx 2 
dy  Lx x 
2

dy Px 2 EI  P    C3
EI   C1 dx  2 2
dx 4
PL2 PL2
At x=L/2, dy/dx=0 C2  C3  -
16 8
dy  L2 x 2  dy  L2 Lx x 2 
EI  P   EI  P    
dx  16 4  dx  8 2 2
 L2 x x 3 
EIy  P    C2  L2 x Lx 2 x 3 
 16 12  EIy  P      C4
 8 4 6
At x=0, y=0 C2  0 PL3
At x=L, y=0 C4  - 24
PL3 PL3
y y
48EI 48EI
 MOMENT AREA METHOD
• First method

M * dx
d 
EI

• Second method
M * dx
xd  x.
EI
 MOMENT AREA METHOD
P Area of the moment diagram (1/2 L)
L 1 L PL PL2

2 2 4 16
P/2

P/2
Taking moments about the end

PL/4 2 L PL2 1 PL3

 * * 
3 2 16 EI 48EI
 CASTIGLIANO’s THEOREM
• Energy method derived by Italian engineer
Alberto Castigliano in 1879.
• Allows the computation of a deflection at any
point in a structure based on strain energy
F1
Fn

F3 F2

• The total work done is then:

U =½F11+ ½F22 ½F33+…. ½Fnn
 CASTIGLIANO’s THEOREM
(Contd …)
Increase force Fn by an amount dF
• This changes the state of deformation and
increases the total strain energy slightly:
U
dU  dFn
Fn
• Hence, the total strain energy after the increase
in the nth force is:
U
U dFn
Fn
 CASTIGLIANO’s THEOREM
(Contd …)
Now suppose, the order of this process is reversed;
• i.e., Apply a small force dFn to this same
body and observe a deformation dn; then
apply the forces, Fi=1 to n.
• As these forces are being applied, dFn goes
through displacement n.(Note dFnis
constant) and does work:
dU = dFnn
• Hence the total work done is:
U+ dFnn
 CASTIGLIANO’s THEOREM
(Contd …)
The end results are equal
• Since the body is linear elastic, all work is
recoverable, and the two systems are
identical and contain the same stored
energy:
U
U dFn  U  dFn Δn
Fn
U
 Δn 
Fn
CASTIGLIANO’s THEOREM
(Contd …)

• The term “force” may be used in its most

fundamental sense and can refer for
example to a Moment, M, producing a
rotation, , in the body.
M
U
n 
M n 
 CASTIGLIANO’s THEOREM
(Contd …)
• If the strain energy of an elastic structure can
be expressed as a function of generalised
displacement qi; then the partial derivative of
the strain energy with respect to generalised
displacement gives the generalised force Qi.

• If the strain energy of a linearly elastic structure

can be expressed as a function of generalised
force Qi; then the partial derivative of the strain
energy with respect to generalised force gives the
generalised displacement qi in the direction of Qi.
 CASTIGLIANO’s THEOREM
P Strain energy

L U2
L/2
M2  
Px
L/2

dx  2 
2

2 dx
0 2 EI 0 2 EI
P/2
L/2

 
 Px 
2

dx
0 4 EI
P/2
According to Castigliano’s theorem
U P L/2 2
    x dx
PL/4 P 2EI 0
P 3 L/2
 x 0
6EI3
PL

48EI
 UNIT LOAD METHOD
(VIRTUAL WORK METHOD)
Deflection (Translation) at a point:

mM
x
Ai hi
Q   dx  
0 EI i Ei I i

Rotation at a point:

m M
x

Q    dx
0 EI
 UNIT LOAD METHOD
Ai hi
Unit load method Q  
Q=1 i Ei I i

Area of the moment diagram (1/2 L)

L 1 L QL QL2
Ai  
2 2 4 16
Q/2
Q
hi  d i
Q/2 2
Q  2 L  QL2 Q  2 L  QL2
QL/4 Q     * *   * *
2  3 2  16 2  3 2  16
A1 A2
* * QL2 3


48
d1 d2
QL3

48EI
DEFLECTIONS OF BEAMS
DEFLECTIONS OF BEAMS
THREE MOMENT EQUATION
 THREE MOMENT EQUATION
(Developed by clapeyron)
Continuity condition  L tan C  R tan C

LL LR

Using second moment-area theorem

1  2 1 1 1 
 L tan C   L L
x A  LL
M L
C L
 LL
M L L
L
ELL  3 2 3 2 

1  2 1 1 1 
 R tan C   xR AR  LR M C LR  LR M R LR 
ELR  3 2 3 2 

Equating the above equations

LL  L L  L 6x A 6x A
M L  2 L  R  M C  R M R   L L  R R
EI L  EI L EI R  EI R LL EI L LR EI R
 THREE MOMENT THEOREM

 A1 x1 A2 x2 
M A L1  2M B ( L1  L2 )  M C L2  6  
 L1 L2 

 L1   L1 L2   L2   A1 x1 A2 x2 
M A    2 M B     M C    6  
 I1   I1 I 2   I2   L1 I1 L2 I 2 