ANALOG & DIGITAL COMMUNICATION

By Engr. Hyder Bux Mangrio

Institute of Information & Communication Technologies
Mehran University of Engineering and Technology, Jamshoro.

09TL-BATCH

Today's Lecture:
17-23

Frequency & Phase Modulation
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INTRODUCTION
An inherent problem with AM is its
susceptibility to noise superimposed on
the modulated carrier signal.
If this noise falls within pass band of the
receiving system and its amplitude is large
enough, it will interfere with the detected
intelligence
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ANGLE MODULATION
The intelligence of the modulating signal
can be conveyed by varying the frequency
or angular velocity or phase angle of the
carrier signal.
When this is case, we have angle
modulation.
Angle modulation is subdivided into two
categories:
Frequency and Phase Modulation
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FREQUENCY MODULATION
Frequency modulation (FM) radio communication
system => system that is much more immune to
noise than its AM counterpart.

FM => has remained one of the most prevalent
forms of modulation techniques in the
telecommunications industry e.g. applied in cellular
and cordless telephony, paging systems, modem
technology, television, and commercial FM
broadcast.

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FREQUENCY MODULATION

The carrier's instantaneous frequency
deviation from its unmodulated value varies in
proportion to the instantaneous amplitude of
the modulating signal.

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CARRIER DEVIATION
The carrier change equally above and
below its center frequency.
The amount frequency change is called the
frequency deviation.
The rate of frequency deviation is
determined by the frequency of the
modulating signal.
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FM CHARACTERISTICS
It is constant amplitude but varies in
frequency
The rate of carrier deviation is the same as
the frequency of the modulating signal.
The amount of carrier deviation is directly
proportional to the amplitude of the
modulating signal.
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FREQUENCY MODULATION
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PHASE MODULATION
The carriers instantaneous phase deviation from its
unmodulated value varies as a function of the
instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal
OR
The carrier deviation is proportional to the rate of
change of the modulating signal.
In calculus, this is derivative of the modulating signal

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PM EQUATION
PM) the as regarded o signal(als modulating
by caused radians in deviation phase maximum
radians in phase modulation
radians in phase carrier
signal modulating of locity angular ve
carrier of locity angular ve
carrier the of amplitude peak A
wave PM the of voltage ous instantane
) (
m
m
C
m
C
C

t
t
e
t Sin t Sin A e
PM
m m C C PM
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PRIMARY DIFFERENCE BETWEEN FM &PM
With PM, the carrier frequency deviation
is proportional to both the modulation
frequency and amplitude.
With FM, the frequency deviation is
proportional to the modulation amplitude
regardless of the signals frequency.
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MODULATION INDEX
Ratio of the maximum frequency deviation to the
modulating signals frequency




Where
m
f
= modulation index
= maximum frequency deviation
f
m
= modulating signal frequency

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FREQUENCY ANALYSIS OF FM
WAVE
Amplitude Modulation : The frequency
components consist of a fixed carrier frequency
with upper and lower sidebands equally
displaced above and below the carrier frequency
The frequency components of the upper
and lower sidebands are mirror images of each
other and identical to that of the modulating
signal
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FREQUENCY ANALYSIS OF FM
WAVE
Frequency Modulation : much more complex
Frequency Modulation: a single sinusoid used to
modulate the FM carrier produces an infinite
number of sideband
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FM FREQUENCY COMPONENTS
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FM WAVEFORM
e
FM
= the instantaneous amplitude of the modulated FM wave
Ac = the peak amplitude of the carrier
J
n
= solution to the nth order Bessel function for a modulation index mf
mf =FM modulation index
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FM WAVEFORM
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BESSEL FUNCTION OF THE FIRST KIND
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PROBLEM
Find the carrier and sideband amplitudes to the fourth-
order sideband for a modulation index of m
f
=3. The peak
amplitude of the carrier, Ac is 10V.
Solution

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CARRIER FREQUENCY EIGENVALUE
The carrier frequency component (Jo) go
to zero amplitudes at specific value of m.
These valued is called eigenvalue.
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PROBLEM
A spectrum analyzer is used to verify an FM signal with
a carrier frequency of 100.3 MHz, a modulation
frequency of 15kHz, and a modulation index of m
f
=2.4,
Determine the following:
(a) The number of significant sideband pairs
(b) Compute the frequency deviation,
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BANDWIDTH REQUIREMENT FOR FM
FM wave contains an infinite number of sidebands, thus
infinite bandwidth requirement for reception and
transmission .
The sideband amplitudes become negligible beyond a
certain frequency range from carrier frequency
This range is function of modulation index
Higher the modulation index, the greater the required
system bandwidth.

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BANDWIDTH FOR FM
The BW requirements for an FM signal can be
computed by
BW = 2 (n x fm)

n = no. of significant sideband
fm = the highest modulation frequency
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CARSONS RULE
The bandwidth of FM signal is much wider than
AM signal
Carson's Rule => the quality of transmission and
reception desired, a limitation must be placed on
the number of significant sidebands that the FM
system must pass
BW = 2 ( + fm)

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26
Modulation Index, mf Significant Sidebands,n
0.00
0.25
0.50
1.00
2.00
3.00
4.00
5.00
7.00
10.00
15.00
0
1
2
3
4
6
7
8
10
14
16
TABLE: Modulation index versus the number of significant
sidebands
EXAMPLE 4.3
The FM broadcast stations transmit audio signals up
to 15 kHz, with a max. deviation of 75 kHz.
Compute
Solution:
(a) The modulation index mf
mf = / fm = 75 kHz / 15 kHz = 5
(b) BW using the first BW equation
BW = 2 (n x fm) = 2 (8 X 15 kHz) = 240 kHz
(c) BW using Carsons Rule
BW = 2 ( + fm) = 2 (75 kHz +15 kHz)
= 180 kHz
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PROBLEM
Given Modulation frequency of 3kHz and a frequency
deviation of 30kHz, compute the following:
a. The modulation index, mf
b. The bandwidth of the FM
c. The bandwidth of FM using Carson's Rule
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BROADCAST FM
The commercial FM broadcast band contain frequency
range of 88 to 108 MHz
FCC allocated a bandwidth of 200kHz and designated a
numerical value,N
The maximum permissible carrier deviation, is 75kHz.
Modulating frequencies range from 50Hz to a 15kHz
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POWER IN THE FM WAVE
The total power in an FM wave is distributed in
the carrier and the sideband components
If we sum the power in the carrier and all
sidebands, it will equal to the total power of
unmodulated carrier (mf = 0)
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POWER IN THE FM WAVE
For a modulated carrier
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PROBLEM
The carrier and sideband amplitudes to the
fourth order are -2.6,3.4,4.9,3.1,1.3V
respectively at modulation index of 3 and peak
carrier amplitude of 10V.Prove that the total
power in an unmodulated FM wave equals to
the total power in the modulated wave. Assume
that the modulated and unmodulated waves
delivered to a 50 load.
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PROBLEM
Find the carrier and sideband amplitudes for an FM wave
with a modulation index of 4. Assume sine wave
modulation and a peak carrier amplitude of 5V. Also
compute the total power in the FM wave having the load
resistance of 50.
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FM VS. AM
FM offers some significant benefits over AM
FM offers better noise immunity
Rejecting interfering signal, because of capture effect
Provide better transmission efficiency
o Disadvantage is FM uses an excessive amount of
spectrum.
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NOISE IMMUNITY
Primary benefit of FM over AM is its superior noise
immunity.
Noise is interference to a signal by lightning, motors,
automotive ignition and any power line.
Narrow spike of voltages with very broad frequency.
Noise is essentially amplitude variations.
FM receiver uses LIMITER circuit
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FM NOSIE
Noise affects the performance of any communication
system.
If noise falls within the passband of the receiver, it can
mix and add with the incoming signal, causing original
signal to become distorted.
The primary advantage of FM over the AM in high SNR
performance of receiver system.

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PHASOR ANALYSIS OF NOISE
In FM, noise added to the carrier signal causes a shift in
frequency or phase from its normal state.





A circuit in the FM receiver, called Limiter is used to
remove any variation in signal amplitude before
detection or demodulation of a signal

n
V
n

c
V
c
R
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C
N
V
V
Sin
1

= the maximum phase deviation of the carrier frequency caused
by noise.
V
N
= noise voltage
V
C
= carrier voltage
fm
SNR
Sin
V
V
SNR
N
N
C
.
noise by produced index modulation equivalent the represent
frequency. modulation the to deviation frequency peak
s carrier' the of ratio the as defined is FM for index Modulation
1


1

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PROBLEM
The input signal to an FM receiver has a noise
voltage of 25V superimposed on its carrier
frequency, whose amplitude is 100V. Compute the
following (a) phase deviation caused by noise(b)
SNR.
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Over the FM SNR is

N
FM
SNR

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PROBLEM
The input SNR to a narrowband FM receiver is 3:1.
the maximum modulation frequency is 3kHz, with a
maximum deviation of 10kHz.Compute the
modulation index, and the overall SNR
improvement from input to output. Assume there is
no noise contribution to the system.
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PRE-EMPHASIS AND DE-EMPHASIS
Pre-emphasis technique, which helps offset high
frequency noise interference.
At the transmitter, the modulating signal is passed
through a simple network which amplifies the high
frequency components more than low frequency
components.
Pre-emphasis uses high pass filter in circuit with
time constant of 75s.
Such a circuit has a lower break frequency f
1
0f
2122Hz. This means that frequencies higher than
2122Hz will be linearly enhanced.
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PRE-EMPHASIS
The output amplitude increases with frequency rate
of 6dB/octave.
Pre-emphasis circuit increases the energy content
of higher frequency signal so that they tend to
become stronger than high frequency noise
components
This improve the Signal to Noise ratio.
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DE-EMPHASIS
The return frequency response to its normal level ,
a de-emphasis circuit is used at the receiver.
This is simple low pass filter with time constant of
75s.

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FM MODULATOR
The basic concept of FM is to vary the carrier frequency
in accordance with the modulating signal
The carrier is generated by either LC or crystal oscillator
circuit.
How we change the carrier frequency in accordance
with modulating signal?
In LC circuit the carrier frequency, is fixed by the value
of capacitance or inductance in tuned circuit.
The carrier frequency may be changed by varying either
inductance or capacitance as modulating signal is
changed
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VOLTAGE VARIABLE CAPACITOR
The component most frequently used in this
application is a varactor or voltage variable
capacitor
Also known as variable diode capacitor
This component is basically a semiconductor
junction diode that operated in a reverse bias mode

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VVC
If an external reverse bias is applied to the diode,
no current will flow.
The bias actually increases the width of the
depletion layer. The width of this depletion mode
depends upon the amount of reverse bias.
A reverse biased junction diode appears to be a
small capacitor.
The P and N-type materials act as the two plates of
capacitor, and the depletion region acts as the
dielectric
The width of depletion layer determines the width of
the dielectric and the amount of capacitance.
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VVC
If the reverse bias is high, the depletion region will
be wide and the dielectric will cause the plates of
the capacitor to be widely spaced, producing a low
value of capacitance.
Decreasing the amount of reverse bias narrows the
depletion region, the plates of capacitor will be
effectively closer together and produce the high
capacitance.
Voltage- variable capacitors are made with a wide
range of capacitance values.
Most units have nominal capacitance in the range
of 1 to 200pF
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H.W
Problem 4.5, 4.6, 4.8, 4.11, 4.14, 4.16, 4.17, 4.19
FM Generations
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