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Mt. Rainier, WA
Today, 10s of thousands of people live on lahar deposits near Mt. Rainier
Weather Events
Learning Objectives
Know the difference between a disaster and a catastrophe Know the components and processes of the geologic cycle
Disaster
Effect of hazard on society
Property damage, injury, loss of life
Catastrophe
Massive disaster
Figure 1.4
Rock Cycle
Different rocks are formed by different processes. Rock types in a location give clues to geological past and present.
Figure 1.12
Hydrologic Cycle
Solar energy drives movement of water between atmosphere and oceans and continents.
Figure 1.13
Biogeochemical Cycle
Combines the previous cycles with the cycling of nutrients needed for live, like carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus Transfer of chemical elements through a series of reservoirs.
Forecast
Range of probability for event
Hazard Reduction
Identify the location of probable event Determine probability of event Observe precursor events Forecast or predict event Warning the public
2. Risk Assessment
Risk = (probability of event) x (consequences) Consequences: damages to people, property, economics, etc. Acceptable risk is the amount of risk that an individual or society is willing to take.
3. Links
Hazards are linked to each other.
Some events may cause others.
Example: Earthquakes and landslides
Concentration of People
(world population today >6.7 billion)
Benefits of Hazards
There are some benefits to hazards. Examples:
Flooding provides nutrients for soil. Landslides form dams to create lakes. Volcanoes create new land.
Earths Differentiation
Iron droplets from magma ocean pond on top of mantle, accumulate into large blobs, and descend toward core
(Nature: 12/6/07)
Earths Layers
Earths Layers
Crust-thin, rocky outer layer (less dense than mantle); composed of: (1) continental crust 15-70 km thick (granite) and (2) oceanic crust 7-10 km thick (basalt) -granite has a density of ~2.8 and basalt is ~2.9 -the Moho (a surface) separates the crust from underlying mantle
Continental crust covers ~40% Earths surface; oceanic crust covers ~60%
Most continental crust at sea level; most oceanic crust at 5 km below sea level
Earths Layers
Mantle-middle layer of rock (less dense than core); 82% Earths volume and most of its mass. Rock type is peridotite; mantle is 2900 km thick with a density of 4.5; geothermal gradient = 10 degrees C/km Outer core-molten iron in motiongenerates magnetic field; 2300 km thick Inner core-solid iron and nickel; 1200 km thick; pressure ~50 million lbs/in2 at 5000 degrees C The core (outer and inner) is Fe (85%), Ni (5%), S (2%), Si (4-5%) and O? (>1%); density is 10.7
5.
Deepest well (Kona Peninsula, Russia) is only 12 km Earthquake energy (type and velocity reveal rock properties) Mantle rocks from volcanoes (xenoliths) Mantle rock from the oceans now on land (ophiolites Newfoundland and Cypress) Meteorites-most from asteroid belt between Mars and Jupiterrepresent raw, planet-forming material (iron meteorites resemble core; stony meteorites resemble mantle) Laboratory experiments (e.g., diamond-anvil cell)
Seismic tomography
Features of Continents
Mountain belts-linear uplifted areas (higher elevations) Craton (platform and shield)-interior of continent; stable
Features of Oceans
Continental shelf -continental crust below sea level Abyssal plains -flat seafloor, deep ocean (2-2.5 km below sea level) Trenches -deep, linear depressions (some >11 km below sea level) Mid-ocean ridge -linear mountain range (cumulative length = ~70,000 km) below sea level (e.g., Mid-Atlantic Ridge). Iceland is an exposure of these mountains above sea level Volcanic island arcs -chain of oceanic islands next to trenches (e.g., Aleutian Islands, AK) Seamounts -submarine volcanoes that may form chains (e.g., Emperor seamount chain)
Features of Oceans