Chapter 1 Introduction

Digital Signal Processing
www.ptcdb.edu.ps
PALESTINE
TECHNICAL COLLEGE
Eng. Akram Abu Garad
Course at a glance
Discrete-Time
Signals &Systems
Fourier Domain
Representation
Sampling &
Reconstruction
System
Structure
System
Analysis
System
Z-Transform
DFT
Filter
Filter Structure Filter Design
Chapter 1- Introduction
Signals, Systems and Signal Processing.
Classification of Signals.
Concept of Frequency in Continuous-
Time & Discrete-Time Signals.
Analog to Digital & Digital to Analog
Conversion.
Introduction
1.1. Signals, Systems and Signal Processing
1
Signal is defined as any physical quantity that varies with independent
variables. For Example, the functions

S
1
(t) = 5t or S
2
(t) = 20t
2
one variable

S(x,y) = 3x+4xy+6x
2
two variables x and y

Speech signal

=
+
N
i
i i i
t t F t A
1
)) ( ) ( 2 sin( ) ( u t
Amplitude
Frequency
Phase
Introduction
System, is defined as a physical device that performs an operation on a
signal.

Basic elements of a digital signal processing system:
A/D Converter
Digital Signal
Processing
D/A Converter
Analog input
signal
Analog output
signal
Digital input
signal
Digital output
signal
1
Introduction
Advantages of DSP
Flexibility (software change)
Accuracy
Reliable Storage
Complex process realized by simple code
Cost, Cheaper than analog
1
Introduction
t A t s t 3 sin ) (
1
=
t j t A Ae t s
t j
t t
t
3 sin 3 cos ) (
3
2
+ = =
1.2. Classification of Signals
1.2.1. Multi-channel & Multidimensional Signals:
A signal is described by a function of one or more independent variables. The
value of function can be REAL-VALUED Scalar, a COMPLEX-VALUED, or a
VECTOR.
Real-Valued Signal
Complex-Valued Signal
(
(
(
=
) (
) (
) (
) (
3
2
1
3
t s
t s
t s
t S
Vector Signal
A signal can be generated by a single source (1-channel) or multiple source (M-
channel). Vector of signals as a multi-channel. ECG (Electrocardiogram) are often
used 3-channel and 12-channel.
Multi-channel Signals
1
Introduction
1.2.1. Multi-channel & Multidimensional Signals:
Multi-dimensional Signals
If the signal is a function of a single independent variable, the signal called
a one-dimensional signal.
On the other hand , a signal called M-dimensional if its value is a function
of M independent variables.
The gray picture is an example of a 2-dimensional signal, the brightness or the
intensity I(x,y) at each point is a function of 2 independent variables.
The black & white TV picture represented as I(x,y,t) 3-Dimensional since
the brightness is a function of time.
The color TV picture has 3 intensity
functions I
r
(x,y,t), I
g
(x,y,t) and I
b
(x,y,t).
(
(
(
=
) , , (
) , , (
) , , (
) , , (
t y x I
t y x I
t y x I
t y x I
b
g
r
1
Introduction
t t x t cos ) (
1
=
t
e t x

= ) (
2
1.2.2. Continuous-Time versus Discrete-Time Signals:
Continuous-Time or analog signal are defined for every value of time.
are examples of
analog signals
x(t)
t 0
Analog Signal
Continuous in time.
Amplitude may take on any value in
the continuous range of (-, ).

Analog Processing
Differentiation, Integration, Filtering,
Amplification.
Implemented via passive or active
electronic circuitry.
1
Introduction
1.2.2. Continuous-Time versus Discrete-Time Signals:
Discrete-Time signals are defined only at certain specific value of time.
Continuous Amplitude.
Only defined for certain time instances.
Can be obtained from analog signals via sampling.
The function provide an
example of a discrete-
time signal.
x(n)
n 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 -1
Undefined
Defined
1
Introduction
1.2.3. Continuous-Valued versus Discrete-Valued Signals:
The values of a CT or DT Signal can be continuous or discrete.
If a signal takes on all possible values of a finite or an infinite range, it is
CONTINUOUS-VALUED Signal.
If the signal takes on values from a finite set of possible values, it is
DISCRETE-VALUED Signal. Also called Digital Signal because of the discrete
values.
x(n)
n 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 -1 8
Digital Signal with 4 different amplitude values
1
Introduction
1.2.4. Deterministic versus Random Signals:
Random Signal
A signal in which cannot be approximated by a formula to a
reasonable degree of accuracy (i.e. noise).
Deterministic Signal
Any signal whose past, present and future values are
precisely known without any uncertainty
1
Introduction
1.3. Concept of Frequency in CT & DT Signals
The concept of frequency is directly related to the concept of time. It has the
dimension of inverse time.
1.3.1. Continuous-Time Sinusoidal Signals:
A simple harmonic oscillation is mathematically described by the following CT
sinusoidal signal:
Analog
Signal
Amplitude
is frequency
in rad/s
phase
in rad
Instead of the frequency F in Hz is used
= 2F
1
Introduction
Analog Sinusoidal Signal Properties :
For every fixed value of the frequency F, x
a
(t) is periodic.
x
a
(t+T
P
) = x
a
(t) where T
P
= 1/F is the fundamental period of
the sinusoidal signal.
CT sinusoidal signal with different frequencies are themselves
different.
Increasing the frequency F results in an increase in the rate of
oscillation of the signal.
1
Introduction
Analog Sinusoidal Signal Periodicity:

T
P
is the smallest value to satisfy the above property.
Proof:
Fundamental Period:
1
Introduction
Complex Exponential Signal:
Euler Manipulations:
1
Introduction
1.3.2. Discrete-Time Sinusoidal Signals:
A discrete-time sinusoidal signal may be expressed as:
Where n is integer variable,
called the sample number.
Amplitude
is frequency
in rad/sample
phase
in rad
Instead of the frequency f in cycle per
sample is used
= 2f
Discrete
Signal
Example of a discrete-time sinusoidal
signal ( = /6 (f =1/12) and = /3)
1
Introduction
Discrete-Time Sinusoidal Signal Properties:
A discrete-time sinusoid signal is periodic
only if its frequency f is a rational number.
The period N MUST be an integer > 0.
Discrete Signals whose frequencies
are separated by a multiple of 2k are
identical. (k = integer)
Proof:
1
Introduction
Discrete-Time Sinusoidal Signal Periodicity:

Because k and N are integers,
f
0
is rational.
Proof:
for all n
Unique Frequencies: If sinusoids with frequencies
1
and
2
both exist
within the interval [- , ] then
1

2
. (the frequencies are different).
Therefore discrete frequencies have a unique range:
1
Introduction
Example:
Is the signal periodic, If
periodic, what is fundamental
period (N)?
1
Introduction
Example:
0
= 0, /8, /4, /2, corresponding to f = 0, 1/16, 1/8, 1/4, 1/2
which results Periodic sequences having periods N = , 16, 8, 4, 2
.
1
Introduction
Example:
Identical Sinusoids:
If sinusoidal frequencies exist outside of the unique range, identical
sinusoids can be found within the unique range.
1
Introduction
1.3.3. Harmonically Related Complex Exponentials:
CT Exponentials:
In some cases we deal with sets of harmonically related complex
exponentials or sinusoid.
The basic signals for CT harmonically related exponentials are:
For each value of k , s
k
(t) is periodic with fundamental period
1/(kF
0
) = T
P
/k or fundamental frequency kF
0
.

From the basic signal we can
construct a harmonically related
complex exponentials by,
where C
k
is
arbitrary complex
constant
The signal x
a
(t) is periodic with fundamental period T
P
=1/F
0
and its
representation in terms of Fourier Series Expansion.

1
Introduction
1.3.3. Harmonically Related Complex Exponentials:
DT Exponentials:
A discrete-time complex exponential is periodic if its relative frequency is
a rational number, f
0
= 1/N , then

In Contrast to the CT case,
There are only N distinct periodic complex exponential in the set s
k
(n)
This is Fourier Series Representation
1
Introduction
1.4. A/D & D/A Conversion
Sampler Quantizer Coder
Analog
signal
Digital
signal
Discrete-Time
signal
Quantized
signal
x(n)
x
a
(t)
x
q
(n)
0101101..
A/D Converter
1.4.1. Analog to Digital Converter (A/D):
Conceptually, the A/D comprise 3 step process as in the following figure.
1
1.4.1.1. Sampling:
Introduction
It is the conversion of a CT signal into DT signal obtained by taking
Samples of the CT signal at DT instants.
Periodic or Uniform Sampling:
This type of sampling is used most often in practice, describe by the relation:
where x(n) is the DT signal obtained by taking
samples of the analog signal x
a
(t) every T seconds.
The rate at which the signal is
sampled is F
s
: F
s
= 1/T

F
s
is called the SAMPLING
RATE or SAMPLING
FREQUENCY (Hz)

1
1.4.1.1. Sampling:
Introduction
Consider an analog sinusoidal signal of the form:
Sampling Frequency:
Normalized frequency:
Sampled Signal:
1
1.4.1.1. Sampling:
Introduction
Relation among frequency variable:
1
1.4.1.1. Sampling:
Introduction
4.1. Analog to Digital Converter (A/D):
1
We observe that the fundamental difference between CT and DT
signals in their range of values of the frequency variables F and f
or and .
Means Sampling from infinite frequency range for F (or ) into
a finite frequency range for f (or ).
Since the highest frequency in a DT signal is = or f = 1/2.
With sampling rate F
s
the corresponding
highest values of F and are:
1.4.1.1. Sampling:
Introduction
Examples:
I. Two analog sinusoidal signals:
Which are sampled at a rate F
s
= 40 Hz.
Discrete-time signals:
This mean
However,
The frequency F
2
= 50 Hz is an alias of the frequency F
1
= 10 Hz at the
sampling rate of 40 samples per second.
F
2
is not the only alias of F
1

1
Introduction
II. Two analog sinusoidal signals, F
1
= 1 Hz & F
2
= 5 Hz are sampled at a rate F
s
= 4 Hz.
F
2
is the alias of F
1

1
Introduction
Aliasing
Aliasing occurs when input frequencies (again greater than half the
sampling rate) are folded and superimposed onto other existing frequencies.
1
In order to prevent alias
where F
max
is the
highest input frequency
Nyquist Rate:
Minimum sampling rate to prevent alias.
1.4.1.1. Sampling:
Introduction
Given Band Limited (Frequency
Limited Signal) with highest
frequency F
max
:
The signal can be exactly
reconstructed provided the
following is satisfied:
Sampling Frequency:
The samples are not
quantized (analog amplitudes)
1
Sampling Theorem:
Introduction
1
Reconstruction Formula:
The signal:
The samples:
Formula:
Interpolation Function:
Introduction
1.4.1.2. Quantization:
1
The process of converting a DT continuous amplitude signal into
digital signal by expressing each sample value as a finite number of
digits is called QUANTIZATION.
Introduction
1
F
s
= 1 Hz
Introduction
1
Numerical illustration of quantization with one significant digit
using truncation or rounding
Introduction
1.4.1.3. Coding:
1
Introduction
1.4.2. Digital to Analog Converter (A/D):
1

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Digital Signal Processing

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