Varieties of life forms

Figure 1.4C-F
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Clown, Fool, or Well Adapted? All organisms have evolutionary adaptations

Inherited characteristics that enhance their ability to survive and reproduce

blue-footed booby

Large, webbed feet help propel the bird through water at high speeds

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 A streamlined shape, large tail, and nostrils that close are useful for diving Specialized salt-secreting glands manage salt intake while at sea

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Evolution explains the unity and diversity of life

Charles Darwin synthesized the Theory of Evolution by natural selection

Theory vs hypothesis

Evolution is the core theme of biology

Figure 1.6A
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 The voyage of the Beagle

Great Britain North America Pacific Ocean Galpagos Islands South America Atlantic Ocean

Europe

Africa Equator

Australia Cape of Good Hope Tasmania Cape Horn Tierra del Fuego New Zealand

Figure 13.1B
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Prevalent ideas at Darwins time

species are fixed Earth is about 6,ooo yrs old

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New ideas proposed

Fossils indicated the earth was very old

Lyell, a geologist, argued that land forms changed constantly.

Lamarck proposed that organisms changed and these changes were passed to progeny.

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 Darwin became convinced that the Earth was old and continually changing

Mex. marine snail shells on high mtns

He concluded that living things also change, or evolve over generations He also stated that living species descended from earlier life-forms: descent with modification

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Darwin proposed natural selection as the mechanism of evolution

Darwin observed that

organisms produce more offspring than the environment can support organisms vary in many characteristics these variations can be inherited

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 natural selection explains the mechanism of evolution

(1) Population with varied inherited traits

Pesticide-resistant insects
Antibiotic-resistant bacteria

(2) Elimination of individuals with certain traits

Figure 1.6B
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(3) Reproduction of survivors

 Charles Darwin, 1874

Alfred Wallace

Figure 13.1x2
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 Darwin cartoon

Figure 13.1x3
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 Evolution happens when populations of organisms with inherited variations are exposed to environmental factors that favor the reproductive success of some individuals over others

Natural selection is the editing mechanism

Evolution is based on adaptations

Figure 1.6C
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Fossils provide strong evidence for evolution

Hominid skull

Petrified trees

Figure 13.2A, B
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 Ammonite casts

Fossilized organic matter in a leaf

Figure 13.2C, D
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 Scorpion in amber

Ice Man acid bogs

Figure 13.2E, F
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 Mammoth tusks

Figure 13.2x4
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 fossils show that organisms have appeared in a historical sequence

Many fossils link early extinct species with species living today
hind leg bones of fossil whales
Figure 13.2G, H
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Other evidence for evolution

Biogeography
Comparative anatomy Comparative embryology

Human

Cat

Whale

Bat

Figure 13.3A
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 Molecular biology - protein clocks

Human

Rhesus monkey

Mouse

Chicken

Frog

Lamprey

Last common ancestor lived 26 million years ago (MYA), based on fossil evidence

80 MYA
275 MYA

330 MYA

450 MYA Figure 13.3B

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Populations are the units of evolution

Figure 13.6
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1. What is evolving? gene pool, microevolution 2. Four agents of evolution

3. Types of natural selection

Populations are the units of evolution A population is a group of interbreeding individuals A species is a group of populations whose individuals can interbreed and produce fertile offspring

Figure 13.6
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What is evolving?
gene pool = total collection of genes in a population at any one time Microevolution is a change in the relative frequencies of alleles in a gene pool

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Four agents of microevolution

1. Mutation changes alleles 2. Genetic drift = random changes in allele frequency
Bottleneck Founder effect

Genetic drift - effects of population size:

LARGE POPULATION = 10,000
1,000 allele frequency = 10,000 = 10%

SMALL POPULATION = 10
allele frequency = 1 10 = 10%

50% of population survives, including 450 allele carriers

50% of population survives, with no allele carrier among them

450 allele frequency = 5,000 = 9% little change in allele frequency (no alleles lost)

allele frequency =

0 5

= 0%

dramatic change in allele frequency (potential to lose one allele)

Bottleneck effect

Founder effect

Figure 13.11B, C

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3. Gene flow can change a gene pool due to the movement of genes into or out of a population ex. Migration 4. Natural selection leads to differential reproductive success

Nonrandom mating changes genotype frequency but not allele frequency.

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 Natural selection

- results in the accumulation of traits that adapt a population to its environment

- the only agent of evolution that results in adaptation.

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What is an organisms evolutionary fitness? Darwinian fitness is an individuals contribution to the gene pool of the next generation compared to other individuals; i.e., number of progeny

Production of fertile offspring is the only score that counts in natural selection

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There are three general outcomes of natural selection

Frequency of individuals Original population

Phenotypes (fur color) Original population Evolved population

Stabilizing selection

Directional selection

Diversifying selection Figure 13.19

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80

beak depth 1976

60

Number of individuals

40

20

Average beak depth, 1976

1978

Average beak depth, 1978 11 12 13 14

10

Beak depth (mm)

Shift of average beak depth during drought

20 70 60 50 Percent of infant deaths 40 30 20 10 0 0 5 Percent of births in 10 population Infant deaths Infant births 15

10

11

Birth weight in pounds

Natural selection tends to reduce variability in populations.

Why doesnt natural selection eliminate all genetic variation in populations? 1. The diploid condition preserves variation by hiding recessive alleles (Bb)

2. Balanced polymorphism (2+ phenotypes stable in population) may result from:

a. heterozygote advantage Aa > aa and AA
b. frequency-dependent selection c. variation of environment for a population

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 Many populations exhibit polymorphism and geographic variation

Figure 13.13
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Not all genetic variation may be subject to natural selection 3. Some variations may be neutral, providing no apparent advantage or disadvantage
Example: human fingerprint patterns

Figure 13.16
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Endangered species often have reduced variation

Low genetic variability may reduce their capacity to survive as humans continue to alter the environment
cheetah populations have extreme genetic uniformity

Figure 13.17
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Why do male and female animals differ in appearance?

Sexual selection leads to the evolution of secondary sexual characteristics Sexual selection may produce sexual dimorphism

Figure 13.20A, B
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Natural selection cannot fashion perfect organisms

This is due to:
historical constraints
adaptive compromises chance events availability of variations

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What is a species?
appearance alone does not always define a species
Example: eastern and western meadowlarks

Figure 14.1A
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What is a species?
Naturally interbreeding populations - potentially interbreeding - reproductively isolated from other species What about asexually reproducing organisms? Extinct species? Shy species?
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MECHANISMS OF SPECIATION When does speciation occur? When geographically isolated, species evolution may occur
gene pool then changes to cause reproductive isolation = allopatric speciation

Figure 14.3
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 A ring species may illustrate the process of speciation

1
OREGON POPULATION

Sierra Nevada Yellowblotched Gap in ring Largeblotched

COASTAL POPULATIONS

Yelloweyed

INLAND POPULATIONS

Monterey

Figure 14.1C
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Reproductive barriers between species

Habitat - different locations

Timing - mating, flowering

Behavioral - mating rituals, no attraction Mechanical - structural differences

Gametic - fail to unite

Hybrid weak or infertile
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 Hybrid sterility is one type of postzygotic barrier

A horse and a donkey may produce a hybrid offspring, a mule
Mules are sterile

Figure 14.2C
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Sympatric speciation
No geographical isolation

Mutation creates reproductive isolation

Polyploidization

Hybridization

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When does speciation occur?

Specialists - Galapagos finches

Generalists - horseshoe crabs, cockroaches

New environments
- ecological niche

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 Adaptive radiation on an island chain

- specialization for different niches
1 A Species A from mainland B 2 B

B 4 C C D C C D

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Figure 14.4B

Medium ground finch

Cactus ground finch

Small tree finch

Medium tree finch

Woodpecker finch

Large ground finch

Small Large cactus ground finch ground finch

Vegetarian finch

Large tree finch

Mangrove finch

Green Gray warbler finch warbler finch

Sharp-beaked ground finch Seed eaters

Cactus flower eaters

Bud eaters

Insect eaters

Ground finches

Tree finches

Warbler finches

Common ancestor from South America mainland

Figure 15.9

No predestined goal of evolution

Figure 15.8

Continental drift has played a major role in macroevolution Continental drift is the slow, steady movement of Earths crustal plates on the hot mantle

North American Plate African Plate Pacific Plate

Eurasian Plate

Nazca Plate

South American Plate

Split developing Indo-Australian Plate Antarctic Plate

Edge of one plate being pushed over edge of neighboring plate (zones of violent geologic events)

Figure 15.3A

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CENOZOIC

influenced the distribution of organisms

Continental mergers triggered extinctions Separation of continents caused the isolation and diversification of organisms

Eurasia Africa South America

India

Millions of years ago

Antarctica

PALEOZOIC

MESOZOIC

Laurasia

Figure 15.3B

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Speciation - how much change is needed?

Gradual vs. jerky

Evidence:
Fossil record
Genetic differences between species Homeotic genes

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 homeotic genes control body development Single mutation can result in major differences in body structure
Fly chromosomes Mouse chromosomes

Fruit fly embryo (10 hours)

Mouse embryo (12 days)

Adult fruit fly Figure 11.14

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Adult mouse