Incompressible Flow

Over Finite wings

Prandtls classical lifting-line theory
Prandtls classical lifting-line
theory

2
b
y =
2
b
y =
y
x
z

V

V
i
D
L
2
b

2
b
Free-trailing vortex
Free-trailing vortex
Finite wing
Horseshoe vortex
z y
x
Trailing vortex
Trailing vortex
2
b

2
b
Downwash distribution along the y axis for a single horseshoe vortex
Prandtls classical lifting-line
theory

( )
( ) (5.13)
2
4
y w
(5.12)
2
4
2
4
2
2
y
b
b
y
b
y
b
y w

|
.
|

\
|
I
=
|
.
|

\
|

I

|
.
|

\
|
+
I
=
t
t t
Trailing from b/2 Trailing from - b/2
Superposition of a finite number of
horseshoe vortices along the lifting line

Lifting line
2
b

2
b

A
B
C
D
E
F
1
I d
2
I d
3
I d
1
I' d
2
I' d
3
I' d
Lifting line
dy
dx
0
I
( ) y I = I

V
dw
x
y
z
Prandtls classical lifting-line theory
dy
dx
0
I
( ) y I = I

V
dw
x
y
z
u
0
y
( )
( )
( )
(5.14)
4
by, given is at located vortex trailing
semifinite entire by the induced at Velocity
line. lifting the along d n circulatio in
change the equal must at vortex trailing the of
strength the In turn, is segment over the
n circulatio in change the and is at n circulatio The
0
0
y y
dy dy d
dw
y
y dw
y
dy
dy
d
d dy
y y

I
=
I
|
.
|

\
| I
= I
t
.
,
Prandtls classical lifting-line theory
( )
( )
(5.18)
4
1
(5.17), into (5.15) eq. ng substituti
2
2
0
0 }

I
=
b
b
i
y y
dy dy d
V
y
t
o
( )
( )
( )
(5.15)
4
1

sheet, vortex trailing entire by the at induced velocity Total
2
2
0
0
0
}

I
=
b
b
y y
dy dy d
y w
y
t
( )
( )
(5.16)
attack of angle Induced
0 1
0 |
|
.
|

\
|
=

V
y w
y
i
tan o
( )
( )
(5.17)
comes be Eq.(5.16) small, is
0
0

=
(
V
y w
y
V w
i
o
o ,
( ) | | ( ) | | (5.19) 2
at located section airfoil for the t coefficien lift The
0 0 0 0 0
0
= =
= =
=
L eff L eff l
y y a
y y
o o t o o o
,
( ) ( ) (5.20)
2
1
0 0
2
y V c y c V L
l
I = = '


( )
( )
(5.21)
2
, have we (5.20), eq. from
0
0
y c V
y
c
l

I
=
( )
( )
(5.22)
have we (5.19), into (5.21) eq. ng substituti
0 L
0
0
eff =

+
I
= o
t
o
y c V
y
( )
( )
( )
( )
(5.23)
4
1

have we (5.9), into (5.22) and (5.18) eq. ng substituti
2 b
2 b -
0
0 L
0
0
0 }

I
+ +
I
=

y y
dy dy d
V y c V
y
y
t
o
t
o
Fundamental equation of
Prandtls lifting-line theory
Prandtls classical lifting-line theory
( ) ( )
( )
( )
( ) (5.26)
2

L

(5.25)
span over the (5.24) eq. g integratin by obtained is lift total The 2.
(5.24)
: theorem Joukowski - Kutta the from obtained is on distributi lift The 1.
2
2
2
2
2
2
0 0
dy y
S V S q
C
dy y V L
dy y L L
y V y L
b
b
L
b
b
b
b
}
}
}

I = =
I =
' =
I = '

( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) (5.30)
2
t, coefficien drag induced
(5.29)
(5.28)
drag induced Total
(5.27)
small is since
span unit per drag induced The 3.
2
2
2
2
2
2
i
dy y y
S V S q
D
C
dy y y V D
dy y y L D
L D
L D
i
b
b
i
i D
i
b
b
i
i
b
b
i
i i i
i i i
o
o
o
o
o o
}
}
}

I = =
I =
' =
' = '
' = '
,
, sin
Elliptical Lift Distribution
( )
( )
(5.32)
4 1
4

(5.31), eq. ating Differenti Downwash. 3.
on distributi lift elliptical

2
1
on. distributi n circulatio elliptical an as designated
is it hence, span; the along y distance ly with elliptical n varies circulatio The 2.
5.13 fig. in shown as origin, at the n circulatio is 1.
: note
(5.31)
2
1
by given on distributi n circulatio a consider
2
1
2 2
2
0
2
0
0
2
0
b y
y
b dy
d
b
y
V L
b
y
y

I
=
I
|
.
|

\
|
I = '
I
|
.
|

\
|
I = I

( )
( ) ( )
u u u
t
d
b
dy
b
y
dy
y y b y
y
b
y w
b
b
sin cos
/
/
2

2
n subtitutio
(5.33)

4 1
(5.15) into (5.32) eq. ng Substituti
0
2
1
2 2
2
2
2
0
0
= =

I
=
}

Elliptical Lift Distribution

( )
( )
( )
(5.36)
2
attack of angle induced (5.17), eq. from
on. distributi lift elliptical an for span over the constant is downwash
(5.35)
2
becomes (5.34) eq. hence 1, n for (4.26) eq. by given form standard is integral this
(5.34)
2

or
2
becomes (5.32) eq. Hence
0
i
0
0
0
0
2
0
0
0
0
2
0
0

I
= =
I
=
=

I
=

I
=
}
}
bV V
w
b
w
d
b
w
d
b
w
o
u
u
u u
u
t
u
u
u u
u
t
u
t
t
cos cos
cos
cos cos
cos
Elliptical Lift Distribution
(5.37)
4
1
(5.25) into eq.(5.31) ng substituti
2 1
2
2
2
2
0
dy
b
y
V L
b
b
}

|
|
.
|

\
|
I =
( )
(5.40)
2
becomes (5.39) eq. hence ,
2
1
however,
(5.39)
4
(5.38)
4 2
(5.37) eq. , cos 2
ation transform the using again,
0
2
0
0
0
2
0
t

t
t u u
u
t
b
SC V
SC V L
b V
L
b
V d
b
V L
b y
L
L

= I
=
= I
I = I =
=
}
sin
(5.42)
AR
becomes (5.41) eq. hence, AR
ratio Aspect
(5.41) or

2
1
2
(5.36) into (5.40) eq. ng substituti
2
2 i
i
t
o
t
o
t
o
L
i
L
L
C
S
b
b
SC
bV b
SC V
=

=
=

,
Elliptical Lift Distribution
High AR
(low induced drag)
( )
(5.43)
AR
or
2
AR 2
obtain we (5.42a), intio (5.42) and (5.40) eq. ng substituti
(5.42a)
2 2
2 2
constant is that noting (5.30), eq. from obtained is coeffient drag induced
2
2
2 0
0 2 0
i
t
t t
t
to
u u
o o
o
t
L
i D
L L
i D
b
b
i i i
i D
C
C
b
SC V C
S V
b
C
S V
b
d
b
S V
dy y
S V
C
=
|
.
|

\
|
=
I
=
I
= I =

} }
,
,
,
sin
Low AR
(high induced drag)
b
b
S
b
2
AR =
Elliptical Lift Distribution
( )
( )
( )
( )
(5.45)

(5.44) or
span unit per lift 2 theory, airfoil Thin
t coefficien
lift section Local span. the along constant also is Hence
span. the along constant is twist, c aerodynami no and twist geometric no
0
0 0
l
l
L eff l
i eff
i
c q
y L
y c
cc q y L
a
a c

=
'
=
= '
=
=
=
, t
o o
o o o
o
( ) y I = I elliptic
wing elliptic
const w=

V
General lift distribution

= I
I = I
s s
=
N
n
n A bV
b
y
1
0
0 0
(5.48) 2
that case general for the assume Hence
wing. finite arbitrary an along on distributi
n circulatio general for the expression e appropriat an be
would series sine Fourier a that hints equation This
(5.47)
as written is (5.31) eq. by given on distributi lift
elliptic the of In term 0 by given now
is direction spanwise in the coordinate the where
(5.46)
2
ation transform he consider t
u
u
u t u
u
sin
sin
, .
cos
(5.49)
2
1

=
I
=
I
N
n
dy
d
n nA bV
dy
d
d
d
dy
d
u
u
u
u
cos
General lift distribution
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( ) (5.51)
2
becomes (5.50) eq. Hence,
(4.26), eq. by given form standard the is (5.50) eq. in integral The
(5.50)
1 2
obtain we (5.23), into (5.49) and (5.48) eq. ng substituti
(5.49) 2
1
0
0
0 0
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
0 0
1
0
0
0
1

}

+ + =

+ + =
=
I
=
I
=
=

N
n
L
N
n
N
n
L
N
n
N
n
n
nA n A
c
b
d
n nA
n A
c
b
dy
d
n nA bV
dy
d
d
d
dy
d
u
u
u o u
u t
u o
u
u u
u
t
u o u
u t
u o
u
u
u
u
t
sin
sin
sin
cos cos
cos
sin
cos
General lift distribution
( )
(5.53) AR
becomes (5.52) eq. Hence
1 n for 0
sin
1 n for
2

is integral the , (5.52) eq. In
(5.52)
2 2
t coefficien lifting have we (5.26), into 48 5 eq.( on Substituti
1
2
1
0
0
1
2
2
2
t t
u u u
t
u u u
t
t
A
S
b
A C
d n
d n A
S
b
dy y
S V
C
L
N
n
b
b
L
= =
=
=
=
= I =
}
}

}

sin
sin sin
) .
General lift distribution
( ) ( )
( ) (5.54)
2


2
: follow as (5.30) into (5.48) eq. of
on substituti the from obtained is t coefficien drag induced The
0
1
2
2
2
u u u o u
o
t
d n A
S V
b
dy y y
S V
C
i
N
n
i
b
b
i D
sin sin
,
}

}
|
.
|

\
|
=
I =

( )
( )
(5.55)
1

4
1
(5.18) into (5.49) and (5.46) eq. of
n subtitutio the from obtained is attack of angle induced The
0 0
1
2
2 0
0
u
u u
u
t
t
t
d
n
nA
y y
dy dy d
V
y
N
n
b
b
i
}

I
=

cos cos
cos
( )
( )

(5.58)
2
have we (5.54), into (5.57) eq. ng substituti
(5.57) or
(5.56)
becomes (5.55) eq. Hence, (4.26). eq. by
given form standard the is (5.55) eq in integral The
1
0
1
2
1
0
0
1
0
u u u
u
u
u o
u
u
u o
t
d n nA n A
S
b
C
n
nA
n
nA
N
n
N
n
i D
N
n
i
N
n
i
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
=
=

sin sin
sin
sin
sin
sin
,
General lift distribution
(5.60) 1 AR
AR
AR
2
2
becomes (5.58) Eq.
for 0
(5.59) sin
for
2

integral standard the from
2
2
1
2
1
2
2 2
1
1
2
1
2
2
0
(
(

|
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
= |
.
|

\
|
=
=
=
=

}
N
n
N
n
N
n
N
n
i D
A
A
n A
nA A
nA nA
S
b
C
k m
d k m
k m
t
t
t
t
u u u
t
t
,
sin

( )
( )
on distributi lift
elliptical for the 1 0,
(5.62)
AR
(5.61) eq. then 1
0

(5.61) 1
AR
(5.60) eq. into for
(5.53) eq. ng substituti
2
1
2
2
1
2
= =
=
+ =
>
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
+ =

e
e
C
C
e
A
A
n
C
C
C
L
i D
N
n
L
i D
L
o
t
o
o
o
o
t
,
,
,
General lift distribution
Elliptic wing
Rectangular wing
Tappered wing
General lift distribution
r
c
t
c
r
t
c
c
= ratio tappered
Effect of Aspect Ratio
(5.65)
AR
1
AR
1

(5.64b) and (5.64a) from
(5.64b)
AR
(5.64a)
AR
ratio, aspect different w/ wings wo Consider t
(5.63)
AR
wing, finite of drag Total
2 1
2
2 1
2
2
2
1
2
1
2
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
+ =
+ =
+ =
e
C
C C
e
C
c C
e
C
c C
e
C
c C
L
D D
L
d D
L
d D
L
d D
t
t
t
t
, ,
,
,
0
0
: wing finite
: airfoil
slope, lift The
a a
d dC a
d dc a
l
l
(

o
o
( )
( )
(5.68)
AR
(5.67) into (5.42) eq. ng substituti
(5.67)

follow as related are and
: wing finite
: airfoil
slope, lift The
0
0
0
0
0
0
const
C
a C
const a C
a
d
dC
a a
a a
d dC a
d dc a
L
L
i L
i
L
l
l
+
|
.
|

\
|
=
+ =
=

t
o
o o
o o
o
o
Effect of Aspect Ratio
( )( )
0.25. - 0.05
t coefficien Fourier the of function is
(5.70)
1 AR 1
platform, general of wing finite a For
(5.69)
AR 1
wing, finite elliptic for and between relation The
0
0
0
0
0
=
+ +
=
+
= =
t
t
t t
t o
.
n
L

A
a
a
a
a
a
a
d
dC
a a
Effect of Aspect Ratio
Physical Significance
A numerical nonlinear lifting-line method

Lifting Surface Theory; vortex
latice numerical method
Lifting surface theory

V

V

V
Prandtls classical lifting-line theory gives reasonable results for straight wing at
moderate to high aspect ratio.

For low-aspect ratia straight wing, swept wing and delta wing, classical lifting-line
theory is inapproriate
Low aspect ratio
straight wing
Swept wing Delta wing
Schematic of a lifting surface

V
( ) y x, o
( ) y x,
( ) y x p ,
-
x
y
( ) y
w
o
Lifting surface
wake
Velocity induced at point P by an infinitesimal segment of the
lifting surface. The velocity is perpendicular to the plane of
the paper
q d
d
( ) y x p ,
r
u
q o d
o d
q , y
, x
q

S Region
W Region
( )
(5.73)
sin
4
dl
4
dV
is, strength
filament vortex this of segment a by
at induced velocity l incrementa the
(5.5) eq. law, Savart - Biot the From
3
3
r
r d d
r
r
d
d
P
u q
t

t

=
I
=

V
( ) ( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) | |
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) | |
(5.76)
4
1


4
1
is, wake the and surface lifting both the by P at induced velocity normal The
(5.75)
4

, at velocity induced the
to d strength of vortex chordwise elemental the of on contributi the g Considerin
(5.74)
4

becomes, (5.73)
eq. Hence - x sin that note Also dV as velocity induced
the to (5.73) eq. of ion constribut the denote we direction, positive in the i.e.,
direction, upward in the positive is that convention sign usual the Following
2 3
2 2
2 3
2 2
3
3
q
q
q o q
t
q
q
q o q q
t
q q
t
o
o
q
t

u
o

d d
y x
y
d d
y x
y x
y x w
r
d d y
dw
P
r
d d x
dw
r dw w
z
w
W
w
S
}}
}}
+

+
+
=

=
= =
,
, ,
,
. .
( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) | |
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) | |
(5.76)
4
1


4
1
2 3
2 2
2 3
2 2
q
q
q o q
t
q
q
q o q q
t
d d
y x
y
d d
y x
y x
y x w
W
w
S
}}
}}
+

+
+
=
,
, ,
,
( )
( ) ( ) zero. is stream fre of component normal the and of sum the such that , and
, for (5.76) eq. solve to is theory surface - lifting of problem central The
x,y w q o
q
-