Southern Methodist University

Bobby B. Lyle School of Engineering

CEE 2342/ME 2342 Fluid Mechanics
Roger O. Dickey, Ph.D., P.E.

III. BASIC EQS. OF HYDRODYNAMICS
A. Fluid Flow Concepts
Reading Assignment:
Chapter 4 Fluid Kinematics, Sections 4.1 and 4.2
A. Fluid Flow Concepts
Frames of Reference
In general, fluids have a strong tendency to
move, or flow as it is commonly called.
Personal experience tells us that it takes
considerable planning and effort to restrain the
motion of fluids drink containers, seawalls,
dams and levees, plumbing, heating and air
conditioning ducts, etc.
The slightest shear stress (t = du/dy) causes a
fluid to flow. Flow may also be induced by an
imbalance in normal stresses, i.e., pressures.
The most general physical interpretation of fluid
flow is that there is a net motion of fluid
particles or elements the continuum concept
from one point in space to another, as a function
of time.
Two distinct methods, each using a different frame
of reference, are commonly used for visualizing and
analyzing the physical properties of flowing fluids:
Lagrangian Method, named in honor of
Joseph Lagrange (1736-1813)
Eulerian Method, named in honor of
Leonhard Euler (1707-1783)
Lagrangian Method based upon the concepts of
classical particle mechanics, characterizes the
motion of a fluid by dividing it into infinitesimal
volume elements, or fluid particles. Then, the
physical properties of fluid particles are described
as functions of space and time as they move. This
approach yields information about the flow from
the reference frame of observers riding along on
the fluid particles. Unfortunately, actually
tagging individual fluid particles so that their
motion can be studied is problematic.
Eulerian Method characterizes motion of a fluid
by specifying its physical properties at each fixed
point in space as a function of time. This
constitutes a field representation of the flowing
fluid, yielding information from the reference
frame of observers located at fixed points in space
watching the fluid pass by over time. This frame
of reference is often the most convenient for
solving fluid dynamics problems.
Example Observing Migratory Birds
Counting the number of birds flying past a fixed
duck blind yields data about time variations in the
rate of migration, e.g., birds/hour. This is a
Eulerian description of the flow rate at a given
location as a function of time. Tagging individual
birds with radio transmitters, and then monitoring
their change in position as they move along their
migration route provides a Lagrangian description
of the pathline followed by a given bird.
When analyzing flowing fluids, physical properties
of interest include one or more of the following:
Velocity
Pressure
Density
Energy
Temperature
Acceleration
Concentration of dissolved/suspended substances
Velocity Field
By definition, the velocity of any arbitrary fluid
particle A is the time rate of change of the
position vector for that particle, ;
visualization of the changing position vector and
the definition of its derivative are illustrated in
Figure 4.1, p. 158:
dt
d
A
A
r
V
Figure 4.1, p. 158 Location of Moving Particle A
in terms of its Position Vector at Different Times
x
y
z
( ) ( )
(

+

t
t t t
dt
d
o
o
o
A A
0 t lim
r r r
A
By writing the velocity for all particles in a
flowing fluid, the velocity field description of the
velocity vector, , is obtained:

where u, v, and w are the components of the
velocity vector in the x-, y-, and z-coordinate
directions, respectively.
( ) t z y x , , , V V =
( ) ( ) ( )k j i V

, , ,

, , ,

, , , t z y x w t z y x v t z y x u + + =
Fortunately, in many practical engineering
applications some of the velocity components are
negligible and 2-dimensional and 1-dimensional
velocity fields are acceptable approximations:
( ) ( )j i V

, , ,

, , , l; dimensiona - 2 t z y x v t z y x u + =
( )
( ) t z y x u u
t z y x u
, , ,
simply, or

, , , l; dimensiona - 1
=
= i V
Film Clip Textbook film, Segment V4.2:
Velocity Field.
Flow Regimes
Unsteady flow the general case where the
fluid velocity changes with time, at any fixed
point in space.
Steady flow the fluid velocity does not change
with time, at any fixed point in space.
Nonuniform flow the general case where the
fluid velocity changes spatially, from one point
to another, at any instant in time.
Uniform flow the fluid velocity does not
change spatially, from one point to another, at a
given instant in time.
Thus, it is possible to have:
Unsteady, nonuniform flow (the most
general case)
Unsteady, uniform flow
Steady, nonuniform flow
Steady, uniform flow (a common special
case)
Compressible flow the general case where
fluid density varies with pressure.
I ncompressible flow the special case of
constant fluid density, independent of pressure.
Viscous flow the general case where fluid
shear forces, and stresses are significant.
Nonviscous, or inviscid flow the special case
where fluid shear forces and stresses are
negligible.
Laminar flow fluids flow in smooth layers, or
lamina, with one layer sliding smoothly over the
next.
Turbulent flow characterized by a mixing
action throughout the fluid flow field, caused by
eddies of varying size forcing the fluid particles
to follow irregular paths.
In laminar flow, viscous forces are sufficient to
dampen turbulent eddies:
High viscosity, low velocity favors
laminar flow
Low viscosity, high velocity favors
turbulent flow
In turbulent flow, velocity at a point tends to
have a small, random component. Thus, there is
no true steady, turbulent flow. However, a
turbulent flow is said to be steady, or quasi-
steady, if the time average velocity at any fixed
point in space does not change with time.
Random time variations in the x-component of
velocity, u, in quasi-steady turbulent flow are
illustrated in Figure 8.12, p. 417:
u
t
0
t
0
+ T
component random =
'
u
velocity mean) (or
averaged time = u
t
u(t)
T
In hydraulics (i.e., one-dimensional,
incompressible fluid flow in closed conduits and
open channels), the concept of uniform flow
also requires qualification, because the velocity
always varies in space from zero at solid
boundaries to U
max
somewhere in the fluid flow
field.
A conduit or channel is said to have uniform
flow if the spatial average velocity over a cross-
section of the conduit or channel, perpendicular
to the direction of flow, does not change from
one cross-section to another.
Consider a prismatic cylindrical conduit having
uniform flow, where every cross-section
perpendicular to the flow has the same velocity
profile, and the same spatial average velocity:
x
1
x
2
1
u
1 2
u u =
x
Film Clip Textbook film, Segment V4.7: Flow
types.
Flow Visualization
There are several concepts that help with
visualizing and analyzing complex fluid
velocity fields:
Streamlines
Pathlines
Streaklines
Streamline a continuous line drawn through a
fluid velocity field, at any instant of
time, that is tangent to the velocity
vector at every point along the line.
There can be no flow across a streamline because
the velocity vector is tangent (i.e., parallel) to the
streamline at all points along the line. An infinite
number of streamlines may be drawn through a
fluid velocity field.
Streamlines are fixed in space for steady flows
because velocity is changing neither in direction
nor magnitude. In unsteady flow, streamlines may
change shape from one instant in time to the next.
Therefore, there is no easy way to view streamlines
in the laboratory for unsteady flows. However,
streamlines are a convenient analytical tool for
mathematical derivations, as will be seen later.
Pathline the line traced out by a given fluid
particle as it flows from one point to
another in a velocity field.
Pathlines are a Lagrangian concept that can be
produced in the laboratory by tagging or
marking a fluid particle, and then taking a time
exposure photograph of its motion. Time exposure
pathlines for auto headlights and taillights are a
common photographic special effect:
Headlight and
Taillight Pathlines
A fluid particle must always follow a path
tangent to a streamline at any instant in time
hence, in steady flow, every pathline corresponds
to a streamline. In unsteady flow, they do not
correspond.
Streakline the line, at any instant in time, that
passes through all fluid particles in
a velocity field that have
previously passed through a
common point.
Streaklines are produced in the laboratory by
continuously injecting a marker (e.g., dye,
hydrogen bubbles, smoke) into the fluid at a
fixed location.
In steady flow, each successively marked fluid
particle follows precisely behind the previous
one forming a steady streakline that corresponds
exactly to the streamline passing through the
injection point. For unsteady flow, fluid particles
marked at the same spatial point at different
times do not necessarily follow the same path.
In summary:
Steady flow streamline, pathline, and
steakline are all the same
Unsteady flow they are not the same
Film Clips Textbook films, Segment V4.9:
Streamlines, Segment V4.10: Streaklines, and
Segment V4.11: Pathlines.