Radiographic Films

Radiographic Film Base

Base must be :1. Transparent - To allow white light to go through 2. Chemically inert 3. Must not be susceptible to expansion and contraction

4. High tensile strength

5. Flexibility

Radiographic Film
Subbing Base

Subbing
Subbing layer is the adhesive between the emulsion and base

Radiographic Film
Supercoat

Emulsion AgBr
Subbing

Base
Subbing

Emulsion AgBr
Supercoat

What are the advantages of Double Coated Film?

Improve contrast

Reduce the exposure time

Image formation
When radiation passes through an object it is differentially absorbed depending upon the materials thickness and any differing densities The portions of radiographic film that receive sufficient amounts of radiation undergo minute changes to produce the latent image (hidden image)

1. The silver halide crystals are partially converted into metallic silver to produce the latent image 2. The affected crystals are the amplified by the developer, the developer completely converts the affected crystals into black metallic silver 3. The radiograph attains its final appearance by fixation

Film Types

Grain Size Coarse Medium Fine Ultra Fine

Speed Fast Medium Slow V.Slow

Quality Poor Medium Good V.Good

Film factor 10 35 90 200

Film emulsion produced by mixing solutions of nitrate and salt such as potassium bromide.

The rate and temperature determine the grain structures

1. Rapid mixing at low temperature - Finest grain structure 2. Slow mixing at high temperature - Large grain structure

Processing Film

Processing Systems

Developer

Stop

Manual System

bath

Running water

Processing Systems
Development
Metallic Silver converted into Black metallic silver 3-5 min at 20OC 68 F Main Constituents Developing agent metol-hydroquinone Accelerator keeps solution alkaline Restrainer ensures only exposed silver halides converted Preservative prevents oxidation by air Replenishment

Purpose to ensure that the activity of the developer and the

developing time required remains constant Guideline 1. After 1m2 of film has been developed, about 400 ml of replenisher needs to be added

Processing Systems

Stop Bath
3% Acetic acid - neutralises the developer

Processing Systems

Fixer
Sodium thiosulphate or ammonium thiosulphate

Functions:- 1. Removes all unexposed silver grains

2. Hardens the emulsion gelatin

Clearing time - The time taken for the radiography to loose its milky appearance.
Fixing time - Twice the clearing time

Processing Systems

Running water
Films should be washed in a tank with constant running water

for at least 20 minutes.

Insufficient washing the film can caused the yellow fog appears.

SENSITOMETRY

Characteristic Curves
Increasing exposures applied to successive areas of a film After development the densities are measured The density is then plotted against the log of the exposure Characteristic curve

Sensitometric curve
Hunter & Driffield curve

Characteristic Curves
Density (Log)
Shoulder

Straight line section

Toe

Log Relative Exposure

Characteristic Curves
Information which can be obtained from a films characteristic curve
The position of the curve on the exposure axis gives information about the films speed The gradient of the curve gives information on the films contrast

Characteristic Curves
Density (Log)
Density obtained in a photographic emulsion does not vary linearly with applied exposure The steeper the slope the greater the contrast

Log Relative Exposure

Characteristic Curves
Information which can be obtained from a films characteristic curve
The position of the curve on the exposure axis gives information about the films speed

Characteristic Curves
Density
A B C D E

Film A is faster than Film B Film B faster then C

Log Relative Exposure

Characteristic Curves
Information which can be obtained from a films characteristic curve
The position of the curve on the exposure axis gives information about the films speed The gradient of the curve gives information on the films contrast The position of the straight line portion of the curve against the density axis will show the density range range within which the film is at its optimal

Changing Density
Density achieved 1.5 Density required 2.5 Density
2.5

Determine interval between logs 1.8 - 1.3 = 0.5 Antilog of 0.5 = 3.18 Therefore multiply exposure by 3.18
(measured density is lower than the required density)

1.5

1.3 1.8

Original exposure 10 mA mins New exposure 31.8mA mins

Log Relative Exposure

Changing Film
Obtain Logs for Films A and B at required density Interval between logs = 0.15 Density
2.5
A B

Antilog of 0.15 = 1.42

Multiply exposure by 1.42
1.7 1.85

Original exposure 10 mA mins New exposure 14.2 mA mins

Log Relative Exposure

RADIOGRAPHIC DEFINITION
DEFINITION is the sharpness of the dividing line between areas of different density

Radiographic Definition

Geometric unsharpness

Inherent unsharpness

FFD/SFD too short

OFD too large Source size too large

Coarse grain film

Salt screens Wavelength too short

Vibration/movement
Poor screen contact

Radiographic Definition
Geometry Unsharpness ( Ug)
Controlled

by focal spot, focal to film distance ( FFD), object to film distance (OFD)

Inherent unsharpness (Ui)

Controlled by the type of films being used (slow or fast), type of screens and amount of backscatter

Geometry of Image Formation

Penumbra Ug)
Focal spot size, F

Ug= F x ofd fod

(Ug = 0.25mm) ofd

fod ffd

Penumbra (Ug)

Source size as small as possible

Source to object distance as large as

possible

Object to film distance as small as

possible

Penumbra Calculations
Penumbra = S = 4mm OFD = 25mm FFD = 275 S x OFD FFD - OFD

= 4 x 25 275 - 25 Penumbra = 0.4mm

Penumbra Calculations
Min FFD = S x OFD + OFD Penumbra (0.25) S = 4mm OFD = 25mm FFD = 275

= 4 x 25 + 25 0.25
Min FFD = 425mm

Inherent Unsharpness
Stray electrons from exposed crystals

Exposed radiograph with crack like indication

Adjacent crystals affected by stray electrons

Inherent Unsharpness

Large film grain size increased inherent Unsharpness Short wavelength increased inherent Unsharpness Loose film crystal distribution increased inherent Unsharpness

Intensifying Screens
Radiographic film is usually sandwiched between two intensifying screens There are three main types of intensifying screens Lead screens Fluorescent screens Fluorometallic screens

Lead Intensifying Screens

Film placed between 2 intensifying screens Intensification action achieved by emitting particulate radiation (electrons)

Generally lead of 0.02mm to 0.15mm

Front screen shortens exposure time and improves quality by filtering out scatter Back screen acts as a filter only

Salt Intensifying Screens

Film placed between 2 intensifying screens Intensification action achieved by emitting

Light radiation (Visible or UV-A)

Intensification action twice that of lead

screens

No filtration action achieved Salt used calcium tungstate

Fluorometallic Intensifying Screens

Film placed between 2 intensifying screens Intensification action achieved by emitting light
radiation (Visible or UV-A) and particulate radiation
electrons)

High cost
Front screen acts as a filter and intensifier

Salt used calcium tungstate

Scatter
Radiation emitted from any other source than that giving the primary desired rectilinear propagation
Scatter will lead to poorer contrast and definition and create spurious indications It may also cause radiological protection problems

Scatter
Internal scatter
Side scatter path of beam Back scatter film

originating within the specimen walls and nearby objects in the the primary materials located behind the

Scatter
Internal scatter originating within the specimen

Scatter
Side scatter walls and nearby objects in the path of the primary beam

Scatter
Back scatter materials located behind the film

Control of Scatter
Collimation Protection from back scatter Beam filtration Blocking Grids Increased beam energy

Sensitivity

IQI sensitivity

Defect sensitivity

IQI sensitivity

The image on a radiograph which is used to determine the quality level

Defect sensitivity Ability to assist the sensitivity and locate a defect on a radiograph
(Depend on the defect orientation)

Image Quality Indicator

Image Quality Indicators

IQIs / Penetrameters are used to measure

radiographic sensitivity and the quality of the radiographic technique used. They are not used to measure the size of defects detected

Standards for IQIs include:

BS 3971 BS EN 462 DIN 62

Image Quality Indicators

7FE12

Step / Hole type IQI

Wire type IQI

Image Quality Indicators

ASME Image Quality Indicators

Penetrmeter Design
Minimum Penetrmeter Thickness (2% of the weld thickness) Minimum Diameter for 1T Hole Minimum Diameter for 2T Hole Minimum Diameter for 4T Hole 0.5mm

4T dia T dia 2T dia

17
38mm

12mm

0.5mm 1.0mm 2.00mm

IQI Sensitivity

1 Hole visible = 4T
2 Holes visible = T 3 Holes visible = 2T

Image Quality Indicators

Step/Hole Type IQI

Wire Type IQI

Placement of IQI
IQI must be placed on the maximum thickness of

weld

Thinnest required step or wire must be placed at the

extreme edge of section under test IQI must be placed at the source side In case of access problem , IQI has to placed on the film side of the object, letter FS should be placed beside the IQI. IQI material chosen should have similar radiation absorption/transmission properties to the test specimen

IQI Sensitivity

Ideally IQI should be placed on the source side IQI sensitivity is calculated from the following formula

Sensitivity % = Thickness of thinnest step/wire visible x 100 Object Thickness

Image Quality Indicators

Thickness (mm) 1-6 0.050 0.063 0.08 0.10 0.125 0.15 0.16 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.32 0.35 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.63 0.75 0.80 0.90 1.00 1.20 1.25 1.50 1.60 1.80 2.00 2.50 3.00 3.20 4.00 5.00 6.30 BS 3971

STEP 7-12

13-18

4-10 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

WIRE 9-15

15-21

DIN 54 109 WIRE (DIN 62) 1-7 6-12 10-16

H1

BS EN 462-2 STEP/HOLE H5 H9

H 13

W1

BS EN 462-1 WIRE W6 W 10

6 5 4 3 2 1 6 5 4 3 2 1

7 6 5 4 3 2 1

6 5 4 3 2 1 6 5 4 3 2 1 6 5 4 3 2 1 6 5 4 3 2 1 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

7 6 5 4 3 2 1

W 13 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

7 6 5 4 3 2 1 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 7 6 5 4

7 6 5 4 3 2 1

7 6 5 4 3 2 1

6 5 4 3 2 1

3 2 1

IQI Sensitivity
A Radiograph of a 16mm thick butt weld is viewed under the correct conditions, 5 wires visible on the radiograph IQI pack 6-12 Din 62, what is the IQI sensitivity?
Sensitivity = Thickness of thinnest wire visible X 100 Total weld thickness Sensitivity = 0.4 X 100 16 Sensitivity = 2.5 %

IQI Sensitivity
Using the same IQI pack 6-12 Din 62, How many IQI wires must be visible to give an IQI sensitivity of 2 %
Thickness of thinnest wire visible =
Sensitivity X Total weld thickness 100 = 2.0 X 16 100

= 0.32 6 wires visible

Radiographic Definition
Definition measured by the use of a type III I.Q.I.
Alternative terms given
Duplex type
Cerl type B

EN 462 part 5

Exposure Control

Exposure control
For FFD/SFD change

T1 D1 2 = T2 D2 2
T1 = New exposure time T2 = Original exposure time D1 = New FFD D2 = Original FFD

Exposure control
For FFD/SFD change Example: Calculate new exposure time for FFD = 600 mm

Original exposure at 500mm was 10 min

T1 =

(600) 2 (500)
2

10 = 14.4 mins

Exposure calculation

E = M X Time (mA.min)
E = exposure (mA.min) M = Tube current (mA) T = Exposure time (min)

Exposure calculation
In one radiographic operation, an-x-ray machine is set at 5mA and the radiographic film is exposed for a period of 15 minutes. What is the total exposure received by the film?
Solution:

Given,
Tube current (M) = 5mA Exposure time (t) = 15 minutes

Exposure ( E) = M X T
= 5 X 15 = 75 mA.min

Radiographic Techniques

Radiographic Techniques

Single Wall Single Image (SWSI)

- film inside, source outside

Single Wall Single Image (SWSI) panoramic

- film outside, source inside (internal exposure)

Double Wall Single Image (DWSI)

- film outside, source outside (external exposure)

Double Wall Double Image (DWDI)

- film outside, source outside (elliptical exposure)

Single wall single image SWSI

Film
Film

IQIs should be placed source side

Single wall single image SWSI panoramic

Film

IQIs are placed on the film side Source inside film outside (single exposure)

Double wall single image DWSI

Film

IQIs are placed on the film side Source outside film outside (multiple exposure) This technique is intended for pipe diameters over 100mm

Double wall single image DWSI Identification Unique identification IQI placing Pitch marks indicating readable film length
A
ID MR11
EN W10

Radiograph

Double wall double image DWDI elliptical exposure

Film

IQIs are placed on the source side Source outside film outside (multiple exposure) A minimum of two exposures

This technique is intended for pipe diameters less than 100mm

Double wall double image DWDI Identification Unique identification IQI placing Pitch marks indicating readable film length
1
ID MR12

4
EN W10

Shot A Radiograph

Double wall double image (DWDI) perpendicular exposure

Film

IQIs are placed on the source side Source outside film outside (multiple exposure) A minimum of three exposures Source side weld is superimposed on film side weld This technique is intended for small pipe diameters

Sandwich Technique

Density 3.0

Density 1.2

Density 3.0

Density 1.2

Density requirement 2.0 to 3.0 Density unacceptable

Sandwich Technique

FILM A FILM B

LEAD SCREENS

FILM A FILM B

Density 3.0

Density 2.0

Density 3.0

Density 2.0

FILM A: Fast film - Thicker section

FILM B: Slow film - Thinner section

Density 2.0 to 3.0 acceptable

Interpretation conditions

Viewing conditions
Darkened room

Clean viewer
Minimum adequate illumination from the viewer is 3000cd/m2 Eyesight must be adjusted to the darkened conditions

Comfortable viewing position and environment

Avoid fatigue

Radiographic Quality

Density - relates to the degree of darkness Contrast - relates to the degree of difference in
density between adjacent areas on a radiograph

Definition - relates to the degree of sharpness

Sensitivity - relates to the overall quality of the

radiograph

Factors Influencing Sensitivity

Sensitivity
Contrast
Definition

Contrast
Subject contrast :- Contrast arising from variation in opacity within an irradiated area

Radiographic contrast :- The density difference on a radiography

between two areas- usually subject and the background (overall)

Film contrast :- The slope of characteristic curve of the film at specified density. ( Type of film being used, fine grain or large grain)

Factors Influencing Sensitivity

Sensitivity
Contrast Definition

Density

Film

Energy

Subject contrast

Processing

Factors Influencing Sensitivity

Sensitivity

Contrast

Definition

Density

Film

Energy

Object contrast

Processing

Time

Temperature

Type

Strength

Agitation

Radiographic Contrast

Film Contrast

Subject Contrast

Film type

Density

Processing Scatter

Wavelength

Screens

Radiographic Contrast
Poor contrast

Poor contrast

High contrast

Radiographic Density

Density = Log10

Incident light Transmitted light

* Greater contrast is achieved at higher density

Radiographic Density

Lack of Density

Excessive Density

Under exposure Developer temp too low Exhausted developer Developer too weak

Over exposure Excessive development Developer temp too high Too strong a solution

Measuring Radiographic Density

Density A

is measured by a densitometer

densitometer should be calibrated using a density strip

4.0

3.5

3.0

2.5

2.0

1.5

1.0

Factors Influencing Sensitivity

Sensitivity
Contrast Definition

Film speed

Screens

Energy

Vibration Geometry

Processing

Factors Influencing Sensitivity

Sensitivity Contrast Definition

Film speed

Screens

Energy

Vibration Geometry

Processing

Time

Temperature

Type

Strength

Agitation

What is a good radiograph?

A good radiograph satisfies the inspection requirement