Circulatory System

* IMAGES RELATED. * A REVIEW

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Circulatory system
The average adult has about five liters of blood living inside of their body, coursing through their vessels, delivering essential elements, and removing harmful wastes. Without blood, the human body would stop working.

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BLOOD
Blood is the fluid of life, transporting oxygen from the lungs to body tissue and carbon dioxide from body tissue to the lungs. Blood is the fluid of growth, transporting nourishment from digestion and hormones from glands throughout the body. Blood is the fluid of health, transporting disease fighting substances to the tissue and waste to the kidneys.
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Blood
Because it contains living cells, blood is alive. Red blood cells and white blood cells are responsible for nourishing and cleansing the body. Since the cells are alive, they too need nourishment. Vitamins and Minerals keep the blood healthy. The blood cells have a definite life cycle, just as all living organisms do
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Plasma
Approximately 55 percent of blood is plasma, a straw-colored clear liquid. The liquid plasma carries the solid cells and the platelets which help blood clot. Without blood platelets, you would bleed to death.

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Blood lose
When the human body loses a little bit of blood through a minor wound, the platelets cause the blood to clot so that the bleeding stops. Because new blood is always being made inside of your bones, the body can replace the lost blood. When the human body loses a lot of blood through a major wound, that blood has to be replaced through a blood transfusion from other people
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 But everybody's blood is not the same. There are four different blood types. Plus, your blood has Rh factors which make it even more unique. Blood received through a transfusion must match your own. Patients who are scheduled to have major surgery make autologous blood donations (donations of their own blood) so that they have a perfect match.
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The Heart: An Online Exploration

From the moment it begins beating until the moment it stops, the human heart works tirelessly. In an average lifetime, the heart beats more than two and a half billion times, without ever pausing to rest. Like a pumping machine, the heart provides the power needed for life.
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 This life-sustaining power has, throughout time, caused an air of mystery to surround the heart. Modern technology has removed much of the mystery, but there is still an air of fascination and curiosity.

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Erythrocyte (Red Blood Cell)

Most abundant cell type. Clear pinkish non-nucleated discs of uniform diameter (7m) with a central pale area.

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Erythrocyte

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A disk-shaped, biconcave cell in the blood that contains hemoglobin, lacks a nucleus, and transports oxygen and carbon dioxide to and from the tissues. Also called erythrocyte, red cell, red corpuscle a mature blood cell that contains hemoglobin to carry oxygen to the bodily tissues; a biconcave disc that has no nucleus mahadiahmuda GC Bio

A cell in the blood of vertebrates that transports oxygen and carbon dioxide to and from the tissues. In mammals, the red blood cell is diskshaped and biconcave, contains hemoglobin, and lacks a nucleus. Also called erythrocyte, red cell, red corpuscle.

Leukocyte White Blood Cell (WBC)

Leukocytes or white blood cells (WBC) are cells in the blood that are involved in defending the body against infective organisms and foreign substances. Like all blood cells, they are produced in the bone marrow. There are 5 main types of white blood cell, subdivided between 2 main groups:
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 2 main groups: Polymorphonuclear Leukocytes (granulocytes): Neutrophils Eosinophils Basophils Mononuclear Leukocytes: Monocytes Lymphocytes
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Phagocytosis

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 White blood cells are the principal components of the immune system and function by destroying "foreign" substances such as bacteria and viruses. When an infection is present, the production of WBCs increases. If the number of leukocytes is abnormally low (a condition known as leukopenia), infection is more likely to occur and it is more difficult for the body to get rid of the infection.
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Phagocytosis

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 White Blood Cell Count . Measures the number of white blood cells in a microliter of blood. Normal values range from 4100/ml to 10900/ml but can be altered greatly by factors such as exercise, stress and disease. A low WBC may indicate viral infection or toxic reactions. A high WBC count may indicate infection, leukemia, or tissue damage. An increased risk of infection occurs once the WBC drops below 100/ml
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Leukocytes
Leukocytes or white blood cells designate all the hemoglobin free blood cells. These cells belong to the reticuloendothelial system. Based on their nuclear aspect, white blood cells can be divided into two categories: mononuclear cells and polynuclear cells. Lymphocytes and monocytes are the principal mononuclear cells and polynuclear are subdivided into neutrophilic, eosinophilic and basophilic cells. In the urinary sediment, the term leukocyte is usually interpreted as polynuclear, mostly neutrophils. The reason for this situation is that the neutrophils are, by far, the most abundant leukocytes in urine. In a normal specimen, up to 6 or 7 neutrophils / highpower field can be observed. High neutrophil counts are usually related to an inflammation process.
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Neutrophils
A polynuclear neutrophil (neutro) is a plurilobular nucleus bearing cell with a slightly granulated cytoplasm. lineage. This activity is shared with the mastocytes and some macrophages (some think that this activity is due to phagocyted neutros). Since mastocytes are not seen in urine, and that the macrophage size and aspect is quite different from leukocytes, this activity is used in a specific staining procedure for leukocytes.
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 One characteristic of the activated neutrophil is it's adherent capacity. This characteristic is essential for the migration of the cell. Because of this, neutrophils can easily aggregate. In some cases, it is important not to confuse cell aggregation and pus. Pus is formed of degenerated neutrophils (pyocytes) and cellular debris compacted into a mass where cell identity is lost. This discrimination is not commonly used with the urinary sediment, so that many aggregates are reported as pus. The term pus should be restrained to real pus.
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Eosinophils
This cell is different from the other polynuclear cells because of the affinity of its granules for the acid stains like eosin. To be able to distinguish this cell, it is absolutely necessary to stain. In a comparative study, by Nolan and Kelleher, the former has shown that the Hansel stain was superior to the Wright stain for eosinophiluria. The presence of urinary eosinophils is a useful indicator of acute allergic interstitial nephritis. Eosinophiluria is also seen in conditions other than nephritis mahadiahmuda GC Bio

Lymphocytes
Lymphocytes can occasionally be seen in a normal sediment. High counts have been reported in cases of acute allergic interstitial nephritis, rapidly evolutive glomerulonephritis, and graft rejection. With bright field microscopy, the cell cannot be differentiated from the usual leukocytes. With the PAP stain, the cell is small, as a round nucleus with little cytoplasm

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Monocytes
In a study using monoclonal antibodies, a high number of urinary monocytes has been reported in cases of acute allergic interstitial nephritis and of rapidly evolutive glomerulonephritis. In necrosis, these were rare or absent. Like the lymphocytes, monocytes cannot be identified with bright field microscopy. With the PAP stain, the cell is larger than a neutrophil and has a characteristic bean shaped nucleus
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Macrophages
The macrophage is, after the fibroblast, the most abundant cell in connective tissue. The activated macrophage is difficult to describe because it has a very variable aspect. This cell often presents itself with so many cytoplasmic inclusions that the cell's structures are completely masked. Inclusions are of several types, but the droplet is the most frequent. A classic easy to identify macrophage, is the giant cell that contains one or two smaller phagocyted cells in its cytoplasm. But this form is exceptional; the majority of the macrophages are of average size with a lot of inclusions. The macrophages are frequent in acute inflammations. The macrophage loaded with fat droplets is frequently found in many body fluids. These are usually related to a chronic inflammation process. In urine, when these droplets form a maltese cross when viewed between crossed polarized filters, the macrophages are then called oval fat bodies.

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Eosinophil
is a cell . WBC Polymorphonuclear Leukocytes Eosinophils are important in phagocytosis as well as in allergic and inflammatory reactions. can kill helminths by ADCC . A polymorphonuclear leukocyte with large eosinophilic (i.e. red) cytoplasmic granules. Eosinophil function is incompletely understood. They are prominent at sites of allergic reactions, and with parasitic ( helminths ) infections. Eosinophil secretory products inactivate many of the chemical mediators of inflammation. This phenomenon is most obvious with mast cell-derived mediators. Mast cells produce a chemotactic factor for eosinophils. Secretory products of eosinophils: major basic protein (MBP) the substance that can kill parasitic larvae (helminths), inactivates heparine .
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 Basophils are a type of white blood cell (leukocyte) that contain granules filled with chemicals that are toxic to other cells and are used to destroy invading bacteria and other pathogens. They belong to a group of leukocytes known as granular leukocytes or granulocytes. Basophils are heavily involved in the inflamatory response and allergic reactions. They destroy pathogens by engulfing them and then destroying them by releasing their toxic granules in a process known as phagocytosis.
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 Basophils are a type of white blood cell (leukocyte) that contain granules filled with chemicals that are toxic to other cells and are used to destroy invading bacteria and other pathogens. They belong to a group of leukocytes known as granular leukocytes or granulocytes. Basophils are heavily involved in the inflamatory response and allergic reactions. They destroy pathogens by engulfing them and then destroying them by releasing their toxic granules in a process known as phagocytosis.
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Basophils are manufactured and matured in the bone marrow. They only leave the blood except when recruited by cytokines released by a variety of leukocytes. They express a number of adhesion molecules which "stick to" those expressed by the endothelium layer of the blood vessels in response to the cytokines. When basophils are triggered they release a number of immune system mediators including those that regulate granulocytes (histamine, serotonin, bradykinin, heparin and cytokines) and newly-generated mediators such as prostaglandins and leukotrienes which stimulate hypersensitivity and inflammation. Basophils are very similar, but appear to be distinct from, mast cells. It is hypothesised that they are the same type of leukocyte, basophils being the blood version and mast cells the tissue version. This is contraversial.

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 Neutrophils are a type of white blood cell or leukocyte which form an early line of defence against bacterial infections. They are most numerous type of leukocyte and belong to a group called phagocytes. They are part of the innate immune system and are involved in the inflammatory response. Neutrophils are produced in huge numbers in response to infection, trauma, infarction (cell death due to lack of blood supply), emotional distress or other stimuli. They cruise around the blood stream waiting to be called to a site where damage is happening. Once there, they kill the invading bacteria and other noxious substances, usually dying in the process themselves. The method they use to kill invaders is called phagocytosis which involves engulfing and digesting the "enemy" cell.
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As with all leukocytes, neutrophils are produced and partially matured in the bone marrow. They are very short lived lasting anything from a few hours to a few days. They are released in a form known as a "band" neutrophil which matures into a "segmented" neutrophil in the blood. During acute bodily stress, even less mature forms, known as "myelocytes", are released from the marrow. High neutrophil counts in the blood, especially with the presence of myelocytes, are an indicator of bodily stress. Cigarette smoking and obesity both increase the neutrophil count. Neutrophils locate damage sites through immune system messenger proteins called chemokines, specifically they are attracted by alpha chemokines. Macrophages, which are usually the first leukocyte to arrive at the scene of an attack release these chemokines which causes the inside layer of the surrounding blood vessels (the endothelium) to produce "adhesion" proteins that specifically bind to receptors on the neutrophils. Once there, the neutrophil squeezes through the endothelium and migrates to the damage site by following the gradient of chemokines

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 Neutrophils contain supplies of highly toxic substances including peroxidases, hydrolytic enzymes, and defensins (antibiotic-like proteins) which they keep in "cytotoxic granules". When they engulf invading cells, they release these granules which poisons both the invader and the neutrophil. They can also cause wide spread destruction by releasing these granules in a kind of scorced earth policy. The highly restrictive and complex way in which neutrophils are coerced to leave the blood, together with their short life expectancy, prevents these highly dangerous cells from reeking damage to healthly cells of the body.

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Sticky Situations

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Calcium and vitamin K must be present in blood to support the formation of clots. If your blood is lacking these nutrients, it will take longer than normal for your blood to clot. If these nutrients are missing, you could bleed to death. A healthy diet provides most people with enough vitamins and minerals, but vitamin supplements are sometimes needed. A scab is an external blood clot that we can easily see, but there are also internal blood clots. A bruise, or black-andblue mark, is the result of a blood clot. Both scabs and bruises are clots that lead to healing. Some clots can be extremely dangerous. A blood clot that forms inside of a blood vessel can be deadly because it blocks the flow of blood, cutting off the supply of oxygen. A stroke is the result of a clot in an artery of the brain. Without a steady supply of oxygen, the brain cannot function normally. If the oxygen flow is broken, paralysis, brain damage, loss of sensory perceptions, or even death may occur.
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 The human body does not handle excessive blood loss well. Therefore, the body has ways of protecting itself. If, for some unexpected reason, sudden blood loss occurs, the blood platelets kick into action. Platelets are irregularly-shaped, colorless bodies that are present in blood. Their sticky surface lets them, along with other substances, form clots to stop bleeding.
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 When bleeding from a wound suddenly occurs, the platelets gather at the wound and attempt to block the blood flow. The mineral calcium, vitamin K, and a protein called fibrinogen help the platelets form a clot. A clot begins to form when the blood is exposed to air. The platelets sense the presence of air and begin to break apart. They react with the fibrinogen to begin forming fibrin, which resembles tiny threads. The fibrin threads then begin to form a web-like mesh that traps the blood cells within it. This mesh of blood cells hardens as it dries, forming a clot, or "scab."

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Diseases of the Heart and Cardiovascular System

Blocked flow in coronary arteries can result in death of heart muscle, leading to a heart attack. Blockage of coronary arteries is usually the result of gradual buildup of lipids and cholesterol in the inner wall of the coronary artery. Occasional chest pain, angina pectoralis, can result during periods of stress or physical exertion. Angina indicates oxygen demands are greater than capacity to deliver it and that a heart attack may occur in the future. Heart muscle cells that die are not replaced: heart muscle cells do not divide. Heart disease and coronary artery disease are the leading causes of death in the US.
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Human Red Blood Cells, Platelets and T-lymphocyte (erythocytes = red; platelets = yellow; T-lymphocyte = light green) (SEM x 9,900). This image is copyright Dennis Kunkel at www.DennisKunkel.com, used with permission.
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Blood Clotting Mec.

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The formation and actions of blood clots.

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The formation and actions of blood clots.

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 Blood Clot Formation (blood cells, platelets, fibrin clot) (SEM x10,980).
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 THE END.

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