Unit 5: Energy, Exercise and Coordination Energy, Exercise and Coordination

Revision Notes

Topic 7
Run for Your Life

Muscles & Movement

Ligaments old !ones toget er and restrict t eir movements at "oints# T ey$re made of elastic connective tissue Tendons are non%elastic fi!rous, cord%li&e tissue ' ic attac muscle to !one

Muscles & Movement

(nee "oint is a synovial "oint)
TT ee nn dd oo nn"oins "oinsm uu sc le m sc leto oo nn to!! ee
Bo ne Bo ne
M uu M ss cc le le

le xi! gg& on , ,str ne le !o to xi! fle ne &fle !o ns on "oi str t en ne am !o Lig to ne !o Ligament "oins
id l lflu ia id vv lu o f n y s ia s te no y e r s c s e e s t re ne ra bb m ee ane sec r M l tt a m i v nn oovial M nn yy SS ca i a r !!ric lu u s l s saas ct t * c * id d u i l FFlu ll a i vvia oo nn yy SS

Cartilage Cartilagea!sor!s a!sor!ssynovial synovialfluid, fluid,acts actsas asss oc& oc&a!sor!er a!sor!er
gives extra s oc& protection ge tila Car Pad gives extra s oc& protection gePad tila Car

Fibrous Fibrouscapsule capsuleencloses enclosest t ee"oint "oint

Muscles & Movement

+&eletal muscles are usually in antagonist pairs# T ese are pairs of muscles ' ic pull in opposite directions ,lexors contract to flex or !end a "oint -!iceps. Extensors contract to extend or straig ten a "oint -triceps.

Muscles & Movement

T e structure of s&eletal muscles are s o'n rig t# Myofi!rils are made up of fi!rous proteins) actin -t in filaments. and myosin -t ic& filaments. +arcolemma is t e cell surface mem!rane of a muscle cell +arcoplasmic Reticulum is a specialised ER# /t stores and releases Ca0 ions# +arcoplasm is cytoplasm inside a muscle cell#
ril fifb oo yy ibril M M
CC oo nn nn ee cc ti eeTissu tv iv ee Tissu
Bu nd le us cle Bu nd re ss leof ofm m us clefib fib re

nn eemuscle fib muscle fib re re

!euromuscular "unction is the specialised synapse between neurones and muscle cells.

nn eeSar Sac oo m rc ee re m re

Muscles & Movement

T e sliding filament t eory of music contraction is given most simply !y a diagram -R. Myosin filaments ave flexi!le eads t at can c ange orientation, !ind to actin and ydrolyse *T1 using *T1ase *ctin filaments are associated 'it 2 ot er proteins) Troponin & Tropomyosin ' ic control !inding of myosin eads to actin filaments#
3 sarcomere
M yy M oo ss in in
# cc ti # tn in

*rrangement of filaments ' en relaxed

*rrangement of filaments ' en contracted

Muscles & Movement

# cc ti # tn in
ctin # #ctin
Ca $% Ca $ b %in bid site ning site ding

4 en a nerve impulse arrives at a neuromuscular "unction, Ca0 ions are released from sarcoplasmic reticulum# T e process !elo' t en occurs)
in nn in o p o p ro TT ro
Myosin !inding Myosin !inding site !loc&ed !y site !loc&ed !y tropomyosin# tropomyosin# Myosin Myosin ead ead cannot !ind# cannot !ind#

*51 0 1i *51 0 1i

TT ro pp ro oo m yy oo m ss in in

20 Ca attac to troponin -on t te e actin. causing itit to Ca20 attaces es to troponin -on actin. causing to move toget er 'it t reads of tropomyosin move toget er 'it t reads of tropomyosin

Ca2 0 Ca
20

Ca2 0 Ca2 0
0

Ca2 0

Ca2 0

ding Myosin bin inebinding Myos sit site

*51 0 1i *51 0 1i

Myosin returns to Myosin ead ead returns to uprig t position# uprig t position#

Myosin !inding sites of actin are exposed so myosin Myosin !inding sites of actin are exposed so myosin form cross-bridges 'it actin filament form cross-bridges 'it actin filament

#TPase causes #TP #TPase causes #TP )ydrolysis )ydrolysis

#&P % Pi 'eleased #&P % Pi 'eleased

Ca2 0 Ca2 0
0 0

Ca2 0

Ca2 0 Ca2 0
0

Ca2 0

*51 0 1i *51 11 i *5100 i *51 0 1i

#TP B(!&S #TP B(!&S

*T1 *T1

Myosin release *51 and 1i and c cange s sape Myosin eads eads release *51 and 1i and ange ape are a result# T is is t e 164ER +TR6(E# are a result# T is is t e 164ER +TR6(E#

*T1 !inds to myosin causing itit *T1 !inds to myosin ead ead causing to detac from t e actin# to detac from t e actin#

Muscles & Movement

T ere are 2 types of muscle fi!res % ,ast T'itc and +lo' T'itc

Slow Twitch
+pecialised for slo'er sustained contraction# Can cope 'it long periods of exercise# Many mitoc ondria % *T1 comes from aero!ic respiration -in E#T#C#. Lots of myoglo!in -gives it a dar&er colour. to store 62 and lots of capillaries to store 62# ,atigue resistant# Lo' glycogen content lo' levels of creatine p osp ate

Fast Twitch
+pecialised to produce rapid, intense contractions in s ort !ursts# ,e' mitoc ondria % *T1 comes from anaero!ic respiration -in glycolysis. Little myoglo!in and fe' capillaries# T e muscle as a lig t colour# ,atigue 7uic&ly# 8ig 9lycogen content ig levels of creatine p osp ate

Energy +ystems
*ero!ic respiration) glucose 0 oxygen : car!on dioxide 0 'ater 0 energy C;8326; 0 ;62 : ;C62 0 ;826 0 <=>*T1 *naero!ic respiration) glucose : lactic acid 0 energy C;8326;: =C=8;6= 0 2*T1 *T1 provides energy to cells# Energy is need to add a t ird p osp ate !ond to *51 -' ic creates *T1.# 4 en t e !ond is !ro&en !y ydrolysis, t e energy released can !e used in processes in t e cell ' ic need energy#

Energy +ystems % 9lycolysis

*lucose *lucose+)e,ose+)e,ose-(6C) (6C)
#TP #TP

)e,ose )e,osep)osp)ate p)osp)ate(6C) (6C)

#TP #TP

Glycolysis= Gluco (sugar) + lysis (splitting)

)e,ose )e,osebip)osp)ate bip)osp)ate(6C) (6C)

2x 2xtriose triosep)osp)ate p)osp)ate(3C) (3C)

$#TP $#TP $!#& $!#&

$. $.

intermediates intermediates
$#TP $#TP

$$ 'educed !#& 'educed !#&

2x 2xpyruvate pyruvate(3C) (3C)

Energy +ystems %
9lycolysis doesn$t need molecular 62# /nstead, a constant N*5 supply is re7uired# /n anaero!ic respiration, N*5 is made !y e#t#c# T e reduced N*5 must !e oxidised to N*5# 5uring anaero!ic respiration, t is must come from else' ere#
$#TP $#TP

*naero!ic Respiration
Lactate 1at 'ay

*lucose *lucose
$#&P %% $#&P $Pi $Pi

$. $.

reduced reduced!#& !#&

!#& !#&

$. $. Pyruvate Pyruvate Lactate Lactate

/n animals, pyruvate gets reduced into lactate, and N*5 is formed# T e anaero!ic respiration allo's animals to ma&e a small amount of *T1# T e process is not very efficient, !ut it$s fast and delivers *T1 to muscle cells ' en 62 isn$t delivered fast enoug # Lactate forms Lactic *cid in solution# T is reduces t e p8 ' ic can in i!it en?ymes and cause muscle cramp if allo'ed to !uild up# 6nce aero!ic respiration resumes most lactate is converted !ac& into pyruvate# /t is oxidised via t e (re!s cycle into C62 and 826# Extra oxygen needed for t is is t e 6xygen de!t, ' ic must !e paid !ac&#

/nvestigating Rate of Respiration % Core 1ractical

Rate of aero!ic respiration can !e determined using a respirometer !y measuring rate of oxygen a!sor!ed !y small organisms# *ny C62 produced is a!sor!ed !y t e soda lime, so t at 6xygen a!sor!ed !y t e organisms results in t e coloured li7uid moving to'ards t e organism in t e tu!e# T ere is pro!lems 'it pressure c anges in t e apparatus, ' ic can !e solved !y t e syringe if necessary#

You need Respirometer (see below) 5 g of actively respiring organisms (eg Maggots) Soda lime Coloured liquid Dropping pipette Permanent marker pen Solvent (to remove the marker) Cotton wool

*ero!ic Respiration
*ero!ic respiration ta&es place in 2 stages) ,irst pyruvate is oxidised into Car!on 5ioxide, and 8ydrogen -accepted !y N*5 and ,*5.# T is ta&es place in t e matri, of mitoc ondria and involved t e (re!s cycle# /n t e 2nd stage, most of t e *T1 made in aero!ic respiration is synt esised !y oxidative p osp orylation associated in electron transport c ain -e#t#c#.# T is involves c emiosmosis and *T1ase# /t ta&es place in t e cristae of t e mitoc ondria#

T e Lin& Reaction)
Cytoplasm Cytoplasm
Pyruvate Pyruvate rom romglycolysis glycolysis /nside Matrix

1reparing for t e (re!s cycle# 1reparing for t e (re!s cycle#

!#& or F#& !#& or F#& CC $ $ $. $.

Eac glucose provides 2 1yruvate from 9lycolysis# T is means t e lin& reaction appens t'ice per glucose, so 2 *cetyl are made#

Ta&en up !y

8ydrogen acceptors#
'educed !#& or F#& 'educed !#& or F#&

#cetyl #cetyl(2C) (2C)Co!en"yme Co!en"yme# #

To To/rebs /rebsCycle Cycle

T e (re!s Cycle
#cetyl #cetyl(2C) (2C)Co!en"yme Co!en"yme# # 1C 1CCompound Compound
F#& F#& 'educed F#& 'educed F#& !#& !#& 'educed !#& 'educed !#& !#& !#& 'educed !#& 'educed !#& $. $. #TP #TP CC $ $

0C 0CCompound Compound

$. $.

$. $. CC $ $ $. $. 'educed !#& 'educed !#& !#& !#&

5C 5CCompound Compound

Eac molecule of t e 2C *cetyl coen?yme * from t e lin& reaction is used to generate) t ree molecules of reduced N*5 one molecule of reduced ,*5 t'o molecules of C62 one molecule of *T1 !y su!strate%level p osp orylation (synthesised directly from the
energy released by reorganising chemical bonds)#

one molecule of a @%car!on compound ' ic is regenerated to accept an acetyl group

and start t e cycle again# *s eac glucose molecule ma&es 2 pyruvate A 2 *cetyl A 2 turns around car!on cycle#

6xidative p osp orylation, c emiosmosis and t e electron Bast ma"ority of *T1 c generated in aero!ic respiration comes from t e electron transport transport ain c ain###
Intermembrane Space

3 Reduced N*5 Reduced N*5

-coen?yme. -coen?yme. 0 % carries and ee % carries 8 80 and to e#t#c# on inner to e#t#c# on inner mitoc ondrial mitoc ondrial mem!rane# mem!rane#

$Electrons pass from one electron Electrons pass from one electron 4 carrier to t e next in a series of 1rotons -8 . move across t carrier to t e next in a series of
0

redox reactionsC t t ee carrier isis redox reactionsC carrier reduced ' itit receives t t ee reduced ' en en receives electrons and oxidised ' itit electrons and oxidised ' en en passes t em on# passes t em on#
% . .%

inner 1rotons -80. move across t ee inner mem!rane mitoc ondrial mem!rane mem!rane mitoc ondrial mem!rane 0 creating concentrations in creating ig ig 8 80 concentrations in t t ee intermem!rane space# intermem!rane space#

% . .%

% . .%

inner mitochondrial membrane

1
electron carrier electron carrier

18 diffuse !ac& into t e matrix 8 diffuse !ac& into t e matrix

0

80 diffuse !ac& into t e matrix do'n electroc gradient# do'n electroc emical emical gradient#

electron carrier

5 8 allo's *T1ase 8 diffusion diffusion allo's *T1ase

0

3
'educed 'educed !#& !#&

$
!#& !#&

80 diffusion allo's *T1ase to catalyse *T1 synt to catalyse *T1 synt esis esis
0 0

5
. $ . $

mitochondrial matrix

0
2 2

& 8 0 Electrons Electrons & 8 ions ions recom!ine to form ydrogen

#TP #TP

#&P%Pi #&P%Pi
% $. $.%

recom!ine recom!ineto toform form ydrogen ydrogen atoms ' ic t en com!ine atoms ' ic t en com!ine 'it to create 'ater# /f/f 'it oxygen oxygen to create 'ater# supply of oxygen stops, e#t#c# supply of oxygen stops, e#t#c# and *T1 synt esis 'ill also and *T1 synt esis 'ill also stop# stop#

Ma"ority of *T1 generated !y aero!ic respiration comes from t e activity of t e e#t#c# in t e cristae -inner mem!rane of t e mitoc ondria.

*ero!ic respirationsummary %
T e overall reaction can !e summarised as 3. splitting and oxidation of a respiratory su!stance -glucose. to release C62 as a 'aste product# 2. reuniting ydrogen 'it oxygen ' ic releases a large amount of energy in t e form of *T1#

The diagram (right) shows how many ATP molecules are generated by substrate level phosphorylation and oxidative phosphorylation (via e.t.c.)

Control of cardiac cycle

T e impulse to contract t e eart originates from t e eart itself# 8ence t e eart is myogenic#
impulses from t t ee +*N 3 Electrical Electrical impulses from +*N spread across t t ee atria 'alls, spread across atria 'alls, causing contraction# *TR/*L causing contraction# *TR/*L +Y+T6LE# +Y+T6LE#
ss in oo aa in tr ti ll ra nn ia oo dd ee+S# +S# ! -!
tt ar e a ))e r n i in d er d r an y e aay riaa an l gg l at tri nn tit nn aes i c uuc 7ee e icl les d nnd et t7et r c o c co l bbe enntri 6 nn6 al ll vve oo nn 77a

3
'# '#

L# L#

$/mpulses pass to t

at at i rir ve oo ve nt nt rircicu ul la ar r n n ood de e + +##5 5!! --

ventricles via t t ee /mpulses pass to t ee ventricles via *BN after aa s s ort delay to allo' time *BN after ort delay to allo' time for t e atria to finis contracting# for t e atria to finis contracting#

$ 4
L5 L5 '5 '5

4 /mpulses pass do'n t t ee 1ur&yne /mpulses pass do'n 1ur&yne

fi!res to t t ee eart apex# fi!res to eart apex#

TT ee impulses spread up t t roug impulses spread up roug t t ee ventricle 'alls causing contraction ventricle 'alls causing contraction from t e apex up'ards# Dlood isis from t e apex up'ards# Dlood s7uee?ed into arteries# s7uee?ed into arteries# BENRT/CEL*R +Y+T6LE# BENRT/CEL*R +Y+T6LE#

s re bb es i r f ee fi nn y 8 r r8y uu PP

*fter systole t t ee eart goes into diastole, ' t t ee *fter systole eart goes into diastole, ' ere ere cardiac muscles relax# Returning !lood fills atria# cardiac muscles relax# Returning !lood fills atria#

Measuring electrical c anges in t e eart

s t l u s e r G EC
1 e 4av T e 4av ent egm s T + F +
erval 1R int on d 3 S ec

Electrical currents caused !y 'ave of depolarisation ' en t e impulse spreads can !e detected using an EC9# T e 1 'ave is t e time of atrial systole# T e FR+ complex is t e time of ventricular systole# T e T 'ave is causing repolarisation of ventricles during diastole You can 'or& out eart !eat !y measuring time interval !et'een 3 1 'ave and next -3 cycle. and 'or&ing out rate per minute#

Regulation of cardiac output

cardiac output +dm4min63- 9 stro8e volume +dm4- , )eart rate +min63stro8e volume is $olume o blood lea$ing the le t $entricle with each beat the heart rate can be a ected by hormones (eg adrenaline) and ner$ous control. the Cardio$ascular Control Centre in the medulla o the brain controls the sinoatrial node $ia ner$es. the %ympathetic &er$e speeds up the heart rate in response to alls in the p' in the blood due to C( 2 and lactate le$els rising) increases in temperature and mechanical acti$ity in *oints. +mpulses carried by $agus ner$e (,arasympathetic) slows down heart rate when the demand or (2 and C(2 reduces.

Regulation of ventilation rate

ventilation rate 9 tidal volume , number of breat)s per minute Tidal volume % volume of air !reat ed in or out of lungs per !reat Bital capacity % max volume of air t at can !e forci!ly ex aled after a max inta&e of air T e ventilation centre in t e medulla controls t e rate and dept of !reat ing in response to impulses from c emereceptors in t e medulla and arteries ' ic detect t e p8 and concentration of C62 in t e !lood# /mpulses are sent from t e ventilation centre to stimulate muscles involved in !reat ing# * small increase in C62 concentration causes a large increase in ventilation# /t also increases in response to impulses from t e motor cortex and from stretc receptors in tendons and muscles involved in movement# 4e also ave some voluntary control over !reat ing#

+pirometer
* person using a spriometer !reat es in and out of an airtig t c am!er causing it to move up & do'n and leaving a trace on a revolving drum# T e volume of 62 a!sor!ed in a given time !y measuring differences in volume !et'een troug s -la!elled * 0 D. in t e diagram and dividing !y t e time !et'een * 0 D#

8omeostasis
-

8omeostasis is t e maintenance of a sta!le internal environment# * omeostatic system re7uires) receptors to detect t e c ange a'ay from t e norm value -stimulus. a control mec anisms t at can respond to t e information# T e control mec anism uses t e nervous system or ormones to s'itc effectors on or off effectors to !ring a!out t e response# Muscles and glands are effectors#
'eceptors 'eceptors Control ControlMec)anism Mec)anism Feedbac8 Feedbac8 :ffectors :ffectors utput utput

(nput (nput

feed!ac& 8omeostasis negative %

Negative feed!ac& elps to &eep t e internal environment constant# * c ange in t e internal environment 'ill trigger a response t at counteracts t e c ange# ,or negative feed!ac& to occur t ere must !e a norm value -set point.#
Conditions Conditionscontrolled controlled!y !y omeostasis omeostasisfluctuate fluctuatea!out a!outtt eenorm normvalue# value#

norm value

Condition Conditionis iscontrolled controlled!y !ynegative negativefeed!ac&# feed!ac&#

rise a!ove norm norm value fall !elo' norm

cc ange angefrom from norm detected norm detected effectors effectorsact actto toreturn returntt ee condition conditionto tott eeset setpoint point

time

8omeostasisand exercise
T e increased respiration rate not only produces a lot of C62 andGor lactate !ut t e energy transfers also release a lot of eat energy# /t can !e as muc as 3C rise every H%3> mins is t e eat can$t !e dispersed# T e control of core !ody temperature t roug negative feed!ac& is called t ermoregulation# T ermoreceptors in t e s&in detect c anges in temperature, as 'ell as t ermoreceptors in t e ypot alamus ' ic can detect c anges in t e core !lood temperature# /f a rise in temperature is detected a!ove t e norm value t e eat loss centre 'ill stimulate effectors to increase eat loss from t e !ody -usually t roug s&in.

8omeostasisand exercise
T is can !e summarised in t e diagram !elo')
.eat Loss Centre .eat Loss Centre Stimulates: Stimulates: -sweat -sweat glands glands to to secrete secrete sweat sweat Inhibits: Inhibits: -- contraction contraction of of arterioles in arterioles in skin skin (dilates (dilates capillaries) capillaries) -- hair hair erector erector muscles. muscles. -- liver liver (reduces (reduces metabolic metabolic rate. rate. -- skeletal skeletal muscles muscles (relax (relax -no no shivers) shivers)
detected by

receptors

Temperature Rises
set point -norm.

sends impulses

)ypot)alamus

)eat loss centre in

.eat *ain Centre .eat *ain Centre Stimulates: Stimulates: -arterioles -arterioles in in the the skin skin to to contsrict contsrict -hair -hair erector erector muscles muscles to to contract contract -- liver liver to to raise metabolic raise metabolic rate rate -- skeletal skeletal muscles muscles to to contract contract in in shivering shivering Inhibits: Inhibits: -- sweat sweat glands glands

sends impulses

effectors react

Temperature ,alls
set point -norm. set point -norm.

Temperature ,alls
detected by

Temperature Rises
)eat gain centre in effectors react

receptors

sends )ypot)alamus sends impulses impulses

*!ove and !elo' certain temperatures ma&es omeostasis fail# /nstead 1ositive feed!ac& may occur resulting in a ig er temperature continuing to rise or lo' temperature falling still# T is may lead to deat #

Medical Tec nology & +port /ey)ole surgery uses fi!re optics# T is ma&es it possi!le for

surgeons to repair damaged "oints -inc# ligaments in &nee. ' ic precision and little damage# 6nly a small incision is made A less !lood & damage to icial "ointbody % recovery is muc 7uic&er# Prost)eses are arti parts designed to help the patient regain relati$ely normal unction and.or appearance. /he design o prostheses has impro$ed o$er the years so many disabled athletes can compete at high le$els. (eg dynamic response eet literally pro$ide a spring in their step). 0amaged *oints (eg 1nee) can be repaired with small prosthetic implants to replace damaged bone ends. /his restores mobility and ree the patient rom a li e o pain.

Too Little Exercise

6ver prolonged periods of time, too little exercise can ave side effects) reduced p ysical endurance, lung capacity, stro&e volume and maximum eart rate# increased resting eart rate# !lood pressure and storage of fat in t e !ody# increased ris& of C85, type 2 dia!etes, some cancers, 'eig t gain and o!esity# impaired immune response due to lac& of natural &iller cells# increased L5L levels and reduced 85L levels# reduced !one density A ig er ris& of osterperosis#

Too Muc Exercise

6vertraining can lead to c ronic fatigue and poor at letic performance /t can also lead to increased 'ear and tear on "oints# 5amage to cartilage in synovial "oints can lead to inflammations and a form of at ritis# Ligaments also damage# Dursae t e cus ion "oint parts !ecome inflamed and tender *lso, t ere is correlation !et'een intense exercise and t e ris& of infections li&e colds and sore t roats# /t could !e caused !y increased pat ogen exposure or a suppression of t e immune system# T ere is some evidence t at t e num!er and activity of some cells of t e immune system may !e decrease in post vigorous exercise recovery# /t may also !e true t at damage to muscles and release of ormones -eg adrenaline. during exercise may cause an inflammatory response ' ic could also suprpress t e immune system#

Effect of 5rugs on 9enes

+ome drugs -eg ana!olic steroids. are closely related to natural steroid ormones# T ey can pass directly t roug cell mem!ranes and !e carried into t e nucleus !ound to a receptor molecule# T ese ormoneGreceptor complexes act as transcription factors# T ey !ind to t e promoter region of a gene allo'ing RN* polymerase to start transcription# *s a result more protein synt esis ta&es place in t e cells# EI*M1LE) Testosterone increases protein synt esis in muscle cells, increasing t e si?e & strengt of muscle tissue# 1eptide ormones don$t enter cell directly !ut t ey !ind 'it receptors on t e C+M ' ic starts a process t at results in t e activation of a transcription factor 'it in t e nucleus# EI*M1LE) Eryt ropoietin -E16. stimulates t e production of red !lood cells# T8is means t at !lood carries more oxygen, ' ic is good for an at lete#

Effect of 5rugs on 9enes

'' ! # ! pp oo # ly m ly ee ra m ss ee ra

t. nn . e m e t m c a c tt aa tta e s e ra ee ras m y l oolym pp * N r rRRN* oo f e it e f -s nn *ene -sit o i g o i e r r eg te oo er r t m ro PP rom

!# & &!#

rs to cc rs a f o t n o a f ti p n i o r i c t ns rip ra TT ransc

9enes 9enesare ares'itc s'itc ed edon on!y !ysuccessful successful formation and attac ment formation and attac mentof of transcription initiation complex to transcription initiation complex tot t ee promoter promoterregion# region#

9enes 9enesremain remains'itc s'itc ed edoff off!y !yt t eefailure failureof oft t ee transcription transcriptioninitiation initiationcomplex complexto toform formand andattac attac to to t t eepromoter promoterregion# region#TT is isis isdue dueto toa!sence a!senceof ofprotein protein transcription factors or action of repressor molecules# transcription factors or action of repressor molecules#

transcription initiation comple,

'!# '!#Synt)esis Synt)esis

1erformance En ancing 5rugs & Et ics

+ome at letes feel t e need to use illegal performance%en ancing su!stances to pursue excellence# 6t ers may feel t e need to follo' suit, in order to &eep up# Et ical frame'or&s can !e used on !ot sides of t e argument) % rig t and duties % maximising t e amount of good in t e 'orld % ma&ing decisions for yourself % leading a virtuous life EI*M1LE % doping could !e not accepta!le !ecause of at lete$s rig competition# 8o'ever, it could e7ually !e considered t at at letes rig t to exercise autonomy, to ac ieve t eir !est performance# t to a fair ave a

1erformance En ancing 5rugs & Et ics

/n order to maintain if somet ing is et ical or not, a reasona!le argument needs to !e executed# Et ical *!solutists see t ings as very clear cut, !lac& and ' ite# T ey 'ould ta&e one of t'o stances) % /t is never accepta!le for at letes to use suc su!stances even if legal or % /t is al'ays accepta!le for at letes to use any su!stance availa!le to t em to compete effectively, even if t ere are ealt ris&s# Et ical Relativists 'ould realise t at people and circumstances may !e different % EI*M1LE /t is 'rong for at letes to use performance en ancing su!stances !ut t ere may !e some occasions ' en it is accepta!le#

Topic J
9rey Matter

Responding to t e Environment
*nimals ave a fast acting nervous systems ' ic contain neurones -nerve cells. t at carry information in t e form of impulses# /n mammals, sensory neurones carry impulses from receptors to a central nervous system -CN+. ' ic consists of t e !rain & spinal crd# T e CN+ incorporates relay neurones, and processes info from lots of sources and sends t e via motor neurones to effector organs -eg# muscles and glands.

T e 1upil Reflex
Pupil PupilConstricted Constricted
tt cc aa tr n r o t ccon ss le c e s l u sc m rr aa mu l u l iric CC rcu

Pupil Pupil&ilated &ilated

, la ee la, ss'' e l c s l Muuscle ia dd aa '' ial M

, la ssre la, e e l r c s u le m rr la musc uu cc a ir l CC ir

'a dia l lMu scl es ntr ac 'a tt dia Mu scl esCo Co ntr ac

T e iris contains antagonistic muscles -radial and circular. ' ic control iris si?e under t e influence of t e autonomic nervous system -involuntary. /n !rig t lig t p otoreceptors -eg rods. in /n lo' lig t situations, fe'er impulses t e retina cause nerve impulses to pass reac t e retina, ence fe'er reac along t e optic nerver to a group of nerve coordinating centre in t e !rain# cells in t e !rain# T ese cells t en send impulses along t e parasympat etic motor neurones to t e circular muscles of t e iris# T e muscles contact, reducing t e diameter of t e pupil so less lig t enters t e eye ' ic prevents retinal damage# /mpules are sent do'n sypat etic motor neurones to radial muscles of t e iris# T is causes radial muscles to contract and t e pupil !ecome dilated# T is allo's more lig t in#

1lant +ensitivity %
1 otoperiodism
1lants flo'er and t eir seeds germinate in response to c anges in day lengt # T e p otoreceptor ere is K1 ytoc rome$ -!lue%green pigment., and comes in t'o forms ) Red-1R. and ,ar%red-1,R.

# b # s b o s rr o b s b sn a n tt ++ u a rr rr e u a d ll e --ll a d ii g ) g) tt

Converts Convertsto to
(nactive

1 1R R

'everts 'everts;uic8ly ;uic8lyin in Far 'ed Lig)t Far 'ed Lig)t reverts revertsslo7ly slo7lyin int)e t)edar8 dar8 as relatively unsta!le as relatively unsta!le

1 1,R ,R

#ctive

tt n e r n e e f r f i ffd o diffe e o g ss n e a ss rr ngespo n e a a r n a e e g er idiccrr spo ig e g r t g i y r i rrid a t tope m e mayp)o p o t p)o

1lant +ensitivity %
1 ototropism
Tropisms are gro't responses in plants, ' ere direction of gro't is determined !y t e direction of external stimulus# /f a plant gro's towards a stimulus, it is a positive trop ic response# /n plant s oots, lig t and auxins ave an effect)

4it 4it illumination illumination from all from allsides, sides,an an even distri!ution even distri!utionof of auxins moves do'n auxins moves do'n from fromt t eess oot oottip tip and causes and causes elongation elongationof ofcells cells across t e ?one across t e ?oneof of elongation elongation

*uxins *uxinsare are!ro&en !ro&en do'n do'n!y !yen?ymes en?ymes

4 4 en enlig lig t tcomes comes from "ust one from "ust oneside, side, auxins auxinsmove movealong along t t eess aded side aded sideof of t t eess oot, oot, elongating elongatingt t em em ' ' ic ic !ends !endsto totip tip to'ards t e lig t# to'ards t e lig t#

Comparison of communication and

coordination met ods in plants and mammals
Nervous system in mammals
Electroc emical c anges giving an electrical impulse# C emical neurotransmitters used at most synapses#

Endocrine system in mammals

Tropisms in plants

C emical gro't su!stances C emical ormones from endocrine glands carried in !lood -eg auxins. diffusing from cell plasma around circulatory system# to cell# +ome may go in p loem

rapid acting
Esually associated 'it s ort term c anges -eg muscle contraction.

slo'er acting
Can control long term responses -eg gro't .# +ome involved in omeostasis -eg !lood sugar levels.# +ome can !e relatively fast -eg adrenaline response.

slo'er acting
Controls long term gro't responses -eg cell elongation.
Response may !e 'idespread !ut normally restricted to cells 'it in a s ort distance of t e gro't su!stance !eing released#

Response is very localised and specific to -eg. muscle cell or gland

Response can !e 'idespread or targeted to specific cells#

+tructure of Neurones
5endrites conduct impulses to'ards cell !ody# *xons conduct impulses a'ay from cell !ody# Neurones can carry 'aves of action potentials -electrical activity. over long distances# T e mem!ranes are polarised# Myelin s eat 'rapped is a fatty insulating layer# T is increases t e speed of conduction t roug +*LT*T6RY C6N5ECT/6N) +c 'ann cells 'rap around t e neurone go nouris and protect it and produce myelin s eat # T ere are small gaps left uncovered called nodes of Ranvier# *ction potentials "ump from one node of Ranvier to t e next, increasing conduction speed#

Sc)7ann Sc)7annCell Cell

SS c) c) 77 an an n ce cl ell l

annn ss uu le a cc sc c ' uu ' ! y e l ! e !y s ! d a e m ad rr ee m yy la d i a l lilp d i ip # ,, oo nn #

CC ee lll B oo lB dd yy

Motor Motor!eurone !eurone

al als in n i ee m m c)) er TT erann r ra c BB

ss uu ee l c u cl ! !u

ndrites &e &endrites

CC ee llllBody Body

Sensory Sensory!eurone !eurone

ndrites &e &endrites

llll ee cc n n 7aann c) SS c)7

## ,o ,o nn

CC ee lll B lB oo dd yy

'elay 'elay!eurone !eurone

ndrites &e &endrites

# ,, # oo nn

!erve !erve

t)er ge to ld ss)e on l la, get)er ra to ve ld se )e on a, ra seve ing a move a8 m a8ing a move m

#, # , oon n

no nd od ee of of '' an an viv eir er

Transmission of a nerve impulse /n a resting neurone, t ere are more sodium -Na . ions outside t e
0

cell mem!rane t an inside, and more potassium -(0. inside t at outside# T e inside of resting neurone as a negative c arge in comparison, due to presence of c loride ions and %ve c arged proteins A p#d# of a!out %7>mB# T is is resting potential# T e mem!rane is called K1olarised$# T e sodium%potassium pump creates concentration gradients across t e mem!rane -Na0 move out, (0 in.# 1otassium ion c annels allo' facilitated diffusion of (0 out of t e mem!rane -do'n concentration gradient. ' ic creates t at uneven c arge#

Transmission of a nerve impulse

/f a neurone cell is stimulated !y an impulse, voltage dependant Na0 c annels open and Na0 diffuse in# T is increases t e positive c arge inside t e cell A c arge across mem!rane is reversed# T e mem!rane no' carries a p#d# of 0@>mB# T is is t e action potential and t e mem!rane is said to !e polarised# *s t e c arge reverses, t e Na0 c annels s ut and voltage% dependant (0 ions c annels open so more potassium ions leave t e axon, ' ic repolarises t e mem!rane# T e mem!rane can !ecome yperpolarised, ' en t e p#d# drops !elo' t e resting potential# Boltage%dependant (0 c annels close# (0 diffuses !ac& into t e axon to recreate t e resting potential#

Transmission of a nerve impulse

Movement of ions in and out of mem!rane during an action potential#

1ropagation of a nerve impulse along an axon

3
8ig Na0 8ig (0
*t *tresting restingpotential, potential, t t ere ereis isaapositive positive cc arge on arge ont t ee axon outside, outside,and andnegative negative cc arge inside, arge inside,' ' ic ic ig ig +odium +odium concentration concentrationoutside outside and and ig ig 1otassium 1otassium concentration concentrationinside# inside# TT eecc ange angein inp#d# p#d#in int t eemem!rane mem!ranead"acent ad"acentto tot t ee3st 3st action actionpotential potentialinitiates initiatesaasecond secondaction actionpotential# potential# *t *tt t eesite siteof oft t eefirst firstaction action 2nd *ction 1otential potential, potential,t t eevoltage voltage 0 Na0 ( dependant Na0 ion c annels dependant Na0 ion c annels 4 close closeand andvoltage voltagedependant dependant (0 c annels open# (0 c annels open#(0 (0leave leave t t eeaxon, axon,repolarising repolarisingt t ee mem!rane# mem!rane#TT eemem!rane mem!raneis is yperpolarised yperpolarised
(0 Na0
=rd *ction 1otential

3st *ction 1otential

Na0

stimulation
localised electric current

Na0

4 4 en enstimulated, stimulated,voltage voltagedependant dependantNa0 Na0cc annels annelsopen open and Na0 flo' into axon A depolarisation# Localised and Na0 flo' into axon A depolarisation# Localised electric electriccurrents currentsare aregenerated generatedin int t eemem!rane# mem!rane#Na0 Na0 move into ad"acent polarised -resting. region causing move into ad"acent polarised -resting. region causingaa cc ange angein incc arge argeacross acrosst t is ispart partof ofmem!rane mem!rane

* *=rd =rdaction actionpotential potentialis is initiated !y t e 2nd# /n initiated !y t e 2nd# /n t t is is'ay 'aylocal localelectric electric currents cause t currents cause t eenerve nerve impulse impulseto tomove movealong along t t eeaxon# axon# *t *tt t eesite siteof oft t ee3st, 3st,(0 (0 move !ac& into axon, move !ac& into axon, restoring restoringaction action potential# potential#

(0

Na0

(0 Refractory Na0 period progress of impulse

*ction potentials are all or not ing# * !igger stimulus increases t e fre7uency of action potentials % N6T t e strengt # * t res old stimulus must !e applied to produce an action potential#

Rig t after an action potential t ere is a refractory period# T is is ' ere a ne' action potential cannot !e generated as Na0 c annels can$t reopen# T is ensure t at action potentials are &ept as separate signals, and are EN/5/RECT/6N*L

+ynapses
* synapse it t e point ' ere one neurone meets anot er# *t t e tip of an axon, an impulse opens up Calcium ion -Ca0. c annel, t en triggers t e release of a c emical neurotransmitter from synaptic vesicles# T e neurotransmitter can diffuse across t e gap !et'een neurones -synaptic cleft. and !ind to receptors of postsynaptic mem!rane# /f t e neurotransmitter comes from a excitatory neurone, it may open Na0 c annels on t e post synaptic mem!rane ' ic 'ill trigger a ne' action potential in t e postsynaptic neurone# +ome neurotransmitters are in i!itory, and may open C loride ion c annels on t e post synaptic mem!rane, causing it to !e yperpolarised and t erefore arder to get an a!ove%t res old response needed to trigger t e ne' action potential#

+ynapses
*n en?yme is often present in t e synaptic cleft to ydrolyse t e neurotransmitter to avoid t e response from repeating# T e neurotransmitter may !e ta&en !ac& into presynaptic mem!rane to !e reused# *s receptors are only on t e postsynaptic mem!rane, t e signal can only !e unidirectional# +ynapses also act as "unctions and allo' nerve impulses to converge or diverge !ecause one neurone can meet many ot ers at a single synapse#

,on # #,on

+ynapses
3 $ TT eemem!rane depolarises# mem!rane depolarises#
*n action potential arrives *n action potential arrives Calcium ions cc annels open# Calcium ions annels open# Calcium ions enter t Calcium ions enter t ee neurone# neurone#
ee cl l si c i e 55es c titic pp aa n yyn SS
r te it m ss nn er a t r t it o m r u e a ! !eurotr

Calcium ions cause synaptic vesicles Calcium ions cause synaptic vesicles containing neurotransmitter to fuse containing neurotransmitter to fuse 'it t e presynaptic mem!rane# 'it t e presynaptic mem!rane#

$
$% Ca Ca$%

1 5

Neurotransmitter isis released into t t ee synaptic cleft# Neurotransmitter released into synaptic cleft#

tic pp aa synn tic re PP resyb e n a r m ee ne a M r b m M

Neurotransmitter !inds 'it Neurotransmitter !inds 'it receptors on t e postsynaptic receptors on t e postsynaptic mem!rane# Cation cc annels open# mem!rane# Cation annels open# +odium ions flo' t roug t e open +odium ions flo' t roug t e open cc annels# annels#

0 Mem!rane depolarises

Mem!rane depolarises and initiates an action and initiates an action potential potential

<

t ptic Syna Cleft pticClef Syna

titc ic p aap n e n yyn raane s t b s sts m br oo eem PP M M

<4 released t t ee neurotransmitter 'ill !e ta&en up 4 en en released neurotransmitter 'ill !e ta&en up

across t t ee presynaptic mem!rane -' or after across presynaptic mem!rane -' ole ole or after !eing !ro&en do'n., or it can diffuse a'ay & !e !eing !ro&en do'n., or it can diffuse a'ay & !e !ro&en do'n !ro&en do'n

% !a !a%

Bision & 8uman 1 otoreceptors

8uman eyes ave 2 types of p otoreceptor cells found in our retinas# 3. Cones allo' colour vision in !rig t lig t and are clustered in t e centre of t e retina# 2. Rods only provide !lac& and ' ite vision, !ut are muc more sensitive t an cones and 'or& in dim lig t conditions#

Bision & 8uman 1 otoreceptors dark

Lig t energy is a!sor!ed !y r odopsin ' ic splits into retinal and opsin#
Na0

T e opsin !inds to t e mem!rane of t e outer segment of t e cell and t is causes sodium ion c annels to close# T e inner segment continues to pump sodium ions out of t e cell and t e mem!rane !ecomes yperpolarised# T is means t at glutamine 'ill not !e released across t e synapse# 9lutamine usually in i!its t e neurones ' ic connect t e rod cells to t e neurones in t e optic nerve# 4 en t ere is less in i!ition an action potential forms and is transmitted to t e !rain# T e info from t e optic nerve is processed !y t e !rain in t e visual cortex#

Na0 diffuse Na0 diffuse t t roug roug open open cation cation cc annels annels

light

Lig !rea&s do'n Lig t t !rea&s do'n r r odopsin to odopsin to retinal and opsin retinal and opsin

uter Segment

Na0 move do'n Na0 move do'n concentration concentration gradient gradient Na0 actively Na0 actively pumped out pumped out

6psin !inds to t t ee mem!rane causing 6psin !inds to mem!rane causing aa series of reactions ' ic result in t t ee series of reactions ' ic result in Na0 cc annels !eing closed Na0 annels !eing closed Na0 actively Na0 actively pumped out pumped out

!nner Segment

Na0

Mem!rane Mem!rane slig slig tly tly depolarised depolarised %@>mB %@>mB

Mem!rane Mem!rane yperpolarised yperpolarised

Neurotransmitter Neurotransmitter isis released and released and !inds to !ipolar !inds to !ipolar cell preventing itit cell preventing depolarising depolarising

No No Neurotransmitter isis Neurotransmitter released released

Na0

BB ip oo ip la rr la ! ee ! uu ro nn ro ee

Cation cc annels in !ipolar cell open and Cation annels in !ipolar cell open and mem!rane !ecomes depolarised, mem!rane !ecomes depolarised, generating an action potential in t t ee optic generating an action potential in optic nerve neurone# nerve neurone#

T e Cere!rum
T e cere!ral cortex -cere!rum. is t e largest part of t e !rain# /t$s divided into 2 emisp eres connected !y a !and of ' ite matter called t e KCorpus Callosum$# T e cere!rum is associated 'it advanced mental activity li&e language, memory, calculation, processing info from eyes & ears, emotion and controlling all voluntary activities#

T e Cere!rum
Frontal FrontalLobe Lobe Concerned 'it Concerned 'it tt ee ig ig er er !rain functions, li&e decision !rain functions, li&e decision ma&ing, ma&ing,reasoning, reasoning,planning planning & &consciousness consciousnessof ofemotion# emotion# *lso, it$s concerned *lso, it$s concerned'it 'it forming associations forming associationsand and 'it ideas# 'it ideas# /t /tincludes includestt eeprimary primary motor motorcortex cortex' ' ic ic as as neurones t at connect neurones t at connect directly directlyto tott eespinal spinalcord cord and !rain stem -and onto and !rain stem -and onto tt eemuscles.# muscles.# Parietal ParietalLobe Lobe Frontal FrontalLobe Lobe

Parietal ParietalLobe Lobe Concerned 'it Concerned 'it orientation, orientation, movement, sensation, movement, sensation, calculation, calculation,some sometimes timesof of recognition recognition& &memory# memory#

Temporal TemporalLobe Lobe

ccipital ccipital Lobe Lobe

ccipetal ccipetalLobe Lobe concerned concerned'it 'it processing processing info from eyes, including info from eyes, including vision, vision,colour, colour,ss ape ape recognition and perspective recognition and perspective

Temporal TemporalLobe Lobe concerned 'it processing concerned 'it processing auditory auditoryinfo, info,ie ie earing, earing, speec , recognition and speec , recognition andalso also involved involvedin inmemory# memory#

Cerebullum Cerebullum

Next Next+lide +lidefor formore moreon on Cere!ellum Cere!ellum

T e Cere!ellum
CC oo rp uu rp ssCa lllos Ca los uu m m
brum re ee CC rebrum

.ypot)alamus .ypot)alamus controls controlstt ermoregulation ermoregulation

sal *anglia Ba Basal *anglia

ss uu lm la aa m ) l t a o l p y t) . .ypo
dd an n l **la ry y n a ititar aiain u r t i itu bbr PP id d i M M

ss mu ala T) mu ala T)

Cerebellum Cerebellum important importantfor for!alance !alance& & coordinating coordinatingmovements movements

ellum reb Ce rebellum Ce

Medulla Medulla blongata blongata

Medulla Medulla blongata blongata controls many controls many!ody !ody processes processessuc suc as as eart eartrate, rate, !reat !reat ing ingand and!lood !lood pressure pressure

SS pp in aa in ll CC oo rd rd

Critical 4indo's
Critical 4indo's -or critical periods. for development are t ose periods of time ' ere it is t oug t at t e nervous system needs specific stimuli in order to properly develop# Evidence for critical 'indo's ave come from medical o!servations EI*M1LE) * c ild under 3> days ' o develops cataracts may suffer from permanent visual damage even if cataracts are removed at a later date *nimal models are also usedC EI*M1LE) 8u!el and 4iesel used &ittens and mon&eys as models to investigate t e critical 'indo' in visual development !ecause of t e similarity of t eir visual systems to t at of umans# T e animals 'ere deprived of stimulus of lig t into one eye -monocular deprivation. at different stages of development and for different lengt s of time# /t found t at &ittens deprived of lig t in 3 eye at age @ 'ee&s 'ere effectively permanently !lind in t at eye# Monocular deprivation !efore = 'ee&s and after = mont s ad N6 effect#
Eye deprived of lig t during critical period *xons do not pass nerve impulses to cells in t e visual cortex /nactive synapses eliminated Eye as no 'or&ing connection to t e visual cortex and is effectively !lind, even t oug t e cells of t e retina and optic nerve 'or& normally ' en exposed to lig t Eye t at remains open during critical period *xons pass nerve impulses to cells in t e visual cortex +ynapses used !y active axons are strengt ened +ynapses only present for axons coming from t e lig t% stimulated eye# +o t e visual cortex can only respond to t is eye#

*nimal Rig ts /ssues

T e use of animals in scientific study is a controversial topic# *nimal Rig ts activists ' o old an a!solutist vie' t in& it is NEBER rig t to used animals in medical researc # Medical Researc ers old a more relativist vie', t at umans s ould &eep animals 'ell and minimise arm and suffering as muc as possi!le# T e emp asis is on animal 'elfare -rig ts to food, drin&, vets and normal !e aviours.# /t$s very similar to EE la'# T is all assumes t at animals can suffer and experience pleasure# * utilitarian et ical frame'or& allo's certain animals

Nature, Nurture & Drain development

Nature) Many of our c aracteristics develop solely under t e influence of our genes 'it little elp from our environment or learning -eg !lood group. Nurture) Many C aracteristics are learnt or eavily influenced !y our environment -eg air lengt .

Nature, Nurture & Drain development

Most c aracteristics are determined !y nature and nurture, or nature via nurture# 4e are t e result of a mix of genetic and environmental factors# 8uman !e aviours, attitudes and s&ills may ave an underlying genetic !asis, !ut are modified -eg !y experience etc. EI*M1LE) t e c ance of developing some cancers as a genetic !asis ' ere are gene -or several. interact to confer suscepti!ility to t e disease 'it environmental factors contri!uting to t e ris& of development#

Nature, Nurture & Drain development

Evidence for t e relative roles of nature and nurture in !rain development come from a variety of different sources)
T e a!ilities of ne'!orn !a!ies) T e innate a!ilities t at !a!ies ex i!it suggest t at genes elp form t e !rain & some !e aviours !efore t e !a!y is !orn# +tudies of patients 'it damaged !rain areas) +ome px$s ' o ave suffered !rain damage s o' t e a!ility to recover some of t eir !rain function, ' ic demonstrates t at some neurones ave a!ility to c ange# *nimal experiments) eg 8u!el and 4eisel$s experiments on critical 'indo's for sig t, suggesting t at stimulation is important in !rain development# T'in +tudies) /dentical t'ins o!viously s are all t e same genes# ,raternal -non%identical. t'ins s are t e same num!er as any ot er si!ling 'ould# T'in studies can estimate t e relative contri!ution of genes and t e environment# *ny differences !et'een identical t'ins must !e due to environmental effects# /dentical t'ins raised apart in comparison to t ose raised toget er are particularly useful for study# EI*M1LE) /f t ere is a greater difference !et'een t ose t'ins raised apart t an t'ins raised toget er it suggests some environmental influence# 8o'ever, t'ins raised apart may not ave completely different environments and t'ins raised toget er may develop different personalities due to a desire to !e different# /n general if genes ave a strong influence on t e development of a c aracteristic, t en t e closer t e genetic relations ip, t e stronger t e correlation 'ill !e !et'een individuals for t at trait# Cross%cultural studies) /nvestigations into t e visual perceptions of groups from different cultural !ac&grounds support t e idea t at visual cures for dept perception are at least partially learnt#

8a!ituation
8a!ituation is a very simple type of learning ' ic involves t e loss in response to a repeated stimulus ' ic fails to provide any form of reinforcement -re'ard or punis ment.# /t allo's animals to ignore unimportant stimuli so t ey can concentrate of reinforce stimuli#

8a!ituation /nvestigations Core 1ractical *nimal Models

T is practical measures t e time a snail spends 'it dra'n into its s ell ' en you tap its ead -!et'een t e eyes.#
9ill 'it sip 9ill 'it dra's dra's sip on on ' en stimulated !y 'ater ' en stimulated !y 'ater "et "et
SS ip )) oo ip nn

/nverte!rates ma&e for useful animal models for t e inner 'or&ing of t e nervous system# 8ere, +ea +lugs ave !een used to investigate a!ituation#

20 4it stimulation, Ca 4it repeated repeated stimulation, Ca20 cc annels !ecome less responsive so annels !ecome less responsive so 20 less Ca crosses t e presynaptic 20 less Ca crosses t e presynaptic nerve nerve

/nitially t e snail tends to ide for a significant lengt of time, !ut as t e tapping continues, t e time interval decreases# T e snail !ecomes a!ituated to t e tap# Et ical and +afety concerns need to !e addressed ere as animals are used#

er =at "et er"et =at

*ill dra7 al *ill7it) 7it) dra7 al

Ca20

$ Less neurotransmitter released# Less neurotransmitter released#

SS ip )) oo ip nn

sensory neurone from sip on

motor neurone to t e gill

er =at "et er"et =at

*ill *ill

4TT ere isis less depolarisation of ere less depolarisation of

*fter several minutes of *fter several minutes of repeated stimulation of repeated stimulation of t t ee sip t t ee gill no sip on on gill no longer 'it dra's# longer 'it dra's#

postsynaptic mem!rane, so no postsynaptic mem!rane, so no action potential is triggered in action potential is triggered in motor neurone# motor neurone#

5opamine & 1ar&inson$s

1ar&inson$s disease is associated 'it t e deat of a group of dopamine secreting neurones in t e !rain -mid!rain.# T is results in t e reduction of dopamine levels in t e !rain# 5opamine is a neurotransmitter ' ic is active in neurones in t e frontal cortex, !rain stem and spinal cord# /t is associated 'it t e control of movement & emotional responses# Treatments for 1ar&inson$s are varied, 'it most aiming to increase t e concentration of dopamine in t e !rain# 5opamine cannot move into t e !rain from t e !loodstream !ut t e L% 5opa molecule, ' ic is used to ma&e dopamine, can ' ic could elp to relieve symptoms# T e symptoms of 1ar&inson$s are) muscle tremors muscle stiffness & slo' movement poor !alance and 'al&ing pro!lems difficulties 'it speec and !reat ing

+erotonin & 5epression

+erotonin is anot er neurotransmitter, !ut t is time it$s lin&ed to feelings of re'ard & pleasure# Clinical depression -prolonged feelings of sadness, anxiety, opelessness, loss of interest, restlessness, insomnia### etc###. is attri!uted to lo' serotonin levels# Treatments for depression often involve drugs ' ic can increase serotonin concentration in synapses# EI*M1LE) 1ro?ac is a K+elective +erotonin Reupta&e /n i!itor$ -++R/. t at !loc&s t e process ' ic removes serotonin from t e synapse#

5rug effects on synapses

3.

+ome drugs affect t e synt esis, or storage, of neurotransmitters# -eg L%dopa used in t e treatment of 1ar&inson$s disease is converted into dopamine, increasing t e concentration of dopamine to reduce t e symptoms of t e disease. +ome drugs may affect t e release of t e neurotransmitter from t e presynaptic mem!rane# +ome drugs may affect t e interaction !et'een t e neurotransmitter and t e receptors on t e postsynaptic mem!rane < some may !e stimulatory !y !inding to t e receptors and opening t e sodium ion c annels % eg dopamine agonists -mimic dopamine due to s ape, used in 1ar&inson$s treatment. !ind to dopamine receptors and trigger action potentials# < some may !e in i!itory, !loc&ing t e receptors on t e postsynaptic mem!ranes and preventing t e neurotransmitters !inding# +ome drugs prevent t e reupta&e of t e neurotransmitter !ac& into t e presynaptic mem!rane % eg Ecstasy -M5M*. prevents t e reupta&e of +erotonin# T e effect is t e maintenance of a ig serotonin concentration in t e synapse ' ic !rings a!out moods c anges in M5M* users# 6ne of t e side effects of M5M* is depression as a result of t e loss of serotonin from neurones, due to lac& of reupta&e# 1ro?ac is a ++R/ t at !loc&s t e reupta&e of serotonin in t e treatment of depression# +ome drugs may in i!it en?ymes involved in !rea&ing do'n t e neurotransmitter in t e synaptic cleft, resulting in maintenance of a ig concentration of t e neurotransmitter in t e synapse and t erefore repeated action potentials -or in i!ition. of t e presynaptic cleft#

2.

=.

@.

H.

5rug effects on synapses

Neurotransmitter Neurotransmitter synt synt esis esis& &storage storage

Pres ynap tic bran ee Pres ynap ticmem mem bran

Neurotransmitter Neurotransmitterrelease release

Neurotransmitter Neurotransmitter!rea&do'n !rea&do'n

Neurotransmitter Neurotransmitterreupta&e reupta&e

Post syna ptic bran ee Post syna pticmem mem bran

Neurotransmitter Neurotransmitterreceptor receptor !inding !inding

5rug development
4e no' &no' t at c emicals ' ic affect mem!rane%!ound proteins or mimic t e effect of naturally occurring neurotransmitters can ave a significant effect on defective or normal neural pat 'ays# T e more 'e &no' a!out t e specific proteins -and t eir s apes. active in cells, t e more li&ely 'e can find complementary c emicals 'it t e same effect# Traditionally most medicines come from existing plant%!ased c emicals# 8o'ever, info from t e uman genome pro"ect could elp develop drugs t at are ig ly specific so t at t ey can !e effective in lo'er doses 'it fe'er side effects# 1 armacogenomics lin&s p armaceutical expertise 'it t e &no'ledge of t e genome pro"ect# Ne' drugs ave to go t roug rigorous testing !efore t ey go to mar&et -see unit 2.

Drain /maging Tec ni7ues

Magnetic 'esonance (maging +M'(- scans use a strong magnetic ield and radio wa$es to ma1e images o so t tissues (li1e the brain). /hey align hydrogen nuclei to the magnetic ield. 23+ scans can be used in the diagnosis o tumours) stro1es) brain in*uries and in ections. /hey can also trac1 progress o degenerati$e diseases li1e #l"heimer4s by comparing scans o$er a period o time. Functional M'( +fM'(- scan are a modi ied 23+ techni5ue which allows you to see the brain in action doing li$e tas1s) as it detects acti$ity in the brain) ollowed by oxygen upta1e in acti$e bran areas. Computerised a,ial tomograp)y +C#T or CT- scans use 67778s o narrow collimated x!ray beams rotated around the px. 9i1e 23+ they only capture a snapshot in time) so only loo1 at structures and damage rather than unctions. /he resolution is worse than 23+ so small structures in the brain cannot be distinguished. :!rays are ionising) so ha$e potential to harm.

5rug development & T e 8uman 9enome 1ro"ect

* genome is #LL t e 5N* of an organism# T e 8uman 9enome 1ro"ect -891. 'as an international pro"ect ' ic determined t e !ase se7uence of t e uman genome# Many ne' genes ave !een identified, inc# some ' ic are responsi!le for in erited diseases# /n addition, ne' drug targets ave !een identified# /nfo a!out a px$s genome may elp 5rs to prescri!e t e correct drug at t e correct dose# T e 891 may also allo' some prevention of diseases# /f t e genes you carry are &no'n, t en you may understand ' at disease you$re at ris& from# T e 891 also provides info a!out evolution and increases our &no'ledge of p ysiology and cell !iology# T e 891 as also noted ot er animals and plant$s genome#

T e 8uman 9enome 1ro"ect & Et ical /ssues

8ere are some et ical 7uestions a!out t e 891) 4 o o'ns t e informationL +ome groups ave applied for patents on genetic se7uences, so t ey ave o'ners ip, or ave to !e paid for any treatments developed using t e &no'ledge of t at se7uence# 4 o is entitled to &no' t e information a!out Y6ER genome if it is se7uencedL + ould insurance companies &no'L EmployersL 4ill genetic screen lead to t e genetic selection of umans -eugenics. and designer !a!iesL 4 o 'ill pay for t e development of ne' t erapies and drugsL Many possi!le ig ly specialised treatments are expensive and 'ill only !e suita!le for a fe' people#

Ese of 9M to ma&e drugs

9M plants may !e useful for t e production of edi!le drugs -eg vaccines. t at can easily !e transported and stored in plant products -eg !ananas or potatoes.# Eseful genes can !e transferred into crop plants !y using a vector, gene guns -pellets coated 'it 5N*. or a virus# Restriction en?ymes are used to cut 5N* at specific se7uences and 5N* Ligase -en?yme. can stic& 5N* pieces toget er# T ese ma&e it possi!le to insert specific 5N* se7uences in to t e 9M organism# Large num!ers of identical 9M plants can easily !e produced#

Transgenic *nimals -animals 'it a uman gene added. can !e used to produce drugs t at can !e arvested from t eir mil& or semen# Liposomes and viruses are vectors used to insert genes into animal cells# 5rugs produces from transgenic animals include t e !lood clotting factors used to treat aemop ilia#

Microorganisms suc as !acteria are t e most common target for genetic modification as t e are relatively easy targets for gene transfer and can !e gro'n rapidly in large 7uantities in fermenters# T e drugs made can !e extracted and purified using do'nstream processing# /nsulin to treat type // dia!etes is an eg of a drug produced from 9M micro%organisms#

9enetically Modified 1lants

BB aa cc te ri te ra ia
mosome ro )) CC romosome
or

Plas mid ying red ee> biot Plas ic resi midcarr stan carr ce yingdesi desi redgen -mar gen &er >anti antib .. iotic resi stan cegene gene -mar &ergene gene

insertion of insertion of ne' gene ne' gene

or

&!# gun &!#gun

ted in &!# ts lle Pe coated in &!# tscoa lle Pe

t llle uu BB let

5irus &!# 5irus&!#

genes incorporated into tt ee genes incorporated into plant 5N* of some cells# plant 5N* of some cells#

incu!ation in gro't incu!ation in gro't medium, medium, 'it anti!iotic 'it anti!iotic

only cells 'it tt ee only cells 'it ne' ne'genes genessurvive survive

plant su!stances plantgro't gro't su!stances stimulate s oot and stimulate s oot androot rootgro't gro't

Micropropagation) cells gro' in sterile Micropropagation) cells gro' in sterile culture medium, 'it sucrose, amino acids, culture medium, 'it sucrose, amino acids, inorganic ions and plant gro't su!stances# inorganic ions and plant gro't su!stances#

transgenic plant %%all transgenic plant all cells ne' cellscontain contain ne' gene gene

plantlets separated plantlets separated and into andgro'n gro'n intofull full si?e plants si?e plants

Concerns over 9M6s

genetic pollution t roug cross%pollination anti!iotic resistance genes are used to identify 9M !acteria, ' ic could lead to anti!iotic resistance in ot er micro!es 9M crops could out%compete ot er plants and resist er!icides % Decome K+uper%'eeds$# T ey could damage natural food c ains, resulting in damaged environment, !ecause t ey 'ould encourage farms to use selective er!icides to &ill everyt ing !ut t e crop 9M crops may not produce fertile seeds# T is prevents farmers collecting seed and replanting, so may need to return to !iotec company to !uy ne' seeds for eac planting % t is could increase t e price#