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2
Analysis of differences between Low and High
Frequency
At low frequencies, the circuit elements are lumped since
voltage and current waves affect the entire circuit at the same
time.
At microwave frequencies, such treatment of circuit elements
is not possible since voltag and current waves do not affect
the entire circuit at the same time.
The circuit must be broken down into unit sections within
which the circuit elements are considered to be lumped.
This is because the dimensions of the circuit are comparable
to the wavelength of the waves according to the formula:
c/f
where,
c = velocity of light
f = frequency of voltage/current
3
Metallic Cable
Transmission Media
4
Metallic Cable Transmission Media
• Metallic transmission lines
• Balanced and Unbalanced Transmission Lines
• Metallic Transmission Line Equivalent Circuit
• Wave Propagation on a Metallic Transmission Line
• Transmission Line Losses
• Phasor Current and Voltages
• Single section of transmission line
• Characteristic Impedance and Propagation
Constant
• Standing waves, reflection
5
Types of Transmission Lines
Coaxial
Twisted-Pair
Open-Wire
Twin-Lead
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Metallic transmission lines
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Metallic transmission lines
Unshielded twisted-pair
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Metallic transmission lines
Coaxial cable
9
Coaxial components
Connectors: Microwave coaxial connectors required to connect two
coaxial lines are als called connector pairs (male and female). They must
match the characteristic impedance of the attached lines and be
designed to have minimum reflection coefficients and not radiate power
through the connector. E.g. APC-3.5, BNC, SMA, SMC
Coaxial sections: Coaxial line sections slip inside each other while
still making electrical contact. These sections are useful for matching
loads and making slotted line measurements. Double and triple stub
tuning configurations are available as coaxial stub tuning sections.
Attenuators: The function of an attenuator is to reduce the power of
the signal through it by a fixed or adjustable amount. The different types
of attenuators are:
1. Fixed attenuators
2. Step attenuators
3. Variable attenuators
10
Coaxial components (contd.)
Coaxial cavities: Coaxial cavities are concentric
lines or coaxial lines with an air dielectric and
closed ends. Propagation of EM waves is in TEM
mode.
Coaxial wave meters: Wave meters use a cavity
to allow the transmission or absorption of a
wave at a frequency equal to the resonant
frequency of the cavity. Coaxial cavities are
used as wave meters.
11
Attenuators
Attenuators are components that reduce the amount of power a fixed
amount, a variable amount or in a series of fixed steps from the input
to the output of the device. They operate on the principle of interfering
with the electric field or magnetic field or both.
Slide vane attenuators: They work on the principle that a resistive
material placed in parallel with the E-lines of a field current will induce
a current in the material that will result in I2R power loss.
Flap attenuator: A flap attenuator has a vane that is dropped into the
waveguide through a slot in the top of the guide. The further the vane
is inserted into the waveguide, the greater the attenuation.
Rotary vane attenuator: It is a precision waveguide attenuator in which
attenuation follows a mathematical law. In this device, attenuation is
independent on frequency.
12
Isolators
Mismatch or discontinuities cause energy to be reflected back down the
line. Reflected energy is undesirable. Thus, to prevent reflected energy
from reaching the source, isolators are used.
Faraday Rotational Isolator: It combines ferrite material to shift the
phase of an electromagnetic wave in its vicinity and attenuation vanes
to attenuate an electric field that is parallel to the resistive plane.
Resonant absorption isolator: A device that can be used for higher
powers. It consists of a section of rectangular waveguide with ferrite
material placed half way to the center of the waveguide, along the axis
of the guide.
13
Metallic transmission lines
Differential, or balanced, transmission system
Balanced lines have equal impedances from the two
conductors to ground
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Metallic transmission lines
Differential, or balanced, transmission system
15
Metallic transmission lines
Single-ended, or unbalanced, transmission system
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Ideal Transmission Line
No losses
conductors have zero resistance
dielectric has zero conductance
possible only with superconductors
approximated by a short line
No capacitance or inductance
possible with a real line only at dc
with low frequencies and short lines this
can be approximated
17
Two-wire parallel transmission line
electrical equivalent circuit
18
Traveling wave
19
Traveling wave
The input voltage can be described as
v ( t ) = Vc cos ( ω t )
ω is the angular frequency (rad/sec)
The traveling wave can be described as
v ( z , t ) = Vc cos ( ω t − β z )
β is the propagation constant (rad/m)
i ( z , t ) = I c cos ( ω t − β z )
current and voltage are in phase?!?!?
20
Phase velocity and wavelength
v ( t ) = Vc cos ( ω t − β z )
βλ = 2π
2π
β=
λ
ω = 2π f
distance λ ω
vp = = = fλ =
time 1 β
f
dω
vg =
The energy travels with the group velocity dβ
21
Attenuation
v ( z , t ) = Vc e −α z
cos ( ωt − β z )
22
Attenuation ( )
log a x g = g log a ( x )
v ( z , t ) = Vc e −α z
cos ( ωt − β z )
( )
AttdB = 20 log eα = 20α log ( e ) = 8.686α
m
v ( t ) = Ve −α z
cos ( ωt − β z ) = Re ( Ve −α z − j β z
e e jωt
)
has a phasor V which can be represented in
amplitude-angle form as V∠ φ , or in component
form a+jb where a=Vcosφ and b=Vsinφ or in
complex-exponential φ
Ve jform
24
Phasor currents and voltages
25
Phasor currents and voltages
−γ z γ = α + jβ
Vx = V0 e
I x = I 0 e −γ z
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Transmission Line Model
27
Vz = V0 e −γ z
Single section of transmission line
Iz δ V I z +δ I
I z = I 0 e −γ z
1
ZC =
jω C
Vz Cδ z Gδ δ I Vz + δ V
z Z L = jω L
Iz
Total series resistance Rδ z Iz+δ I
Vz
Z0 =
Iz
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Characteristic Impedance
γ Vz = − ( R + jω L ) I z γ I z = − ( G + jω C ) Vz
Vz R + jω L I z Vz R + jω L
= Z0 = =
I z G + jωC Vz Iz G + jω C
Z0 is the characteristic impedance
R = conductor resistance in Ω /unit length
L = inductance in H/unit length
G = dielectric conductance in S/unit length
C = capacitance in F/unit length
31
1
c=
Velocity Factor µ 0ε 0
vp
vf =
c
vp = propagation velocity on the line
c = speed of light in vacuum
= 300 × 106 m/s
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Propagation Constant
γ = α + jβ
γ Vz = − ( R + jω L ) I z ω
vp =
β
γ I z = − ( G + jω C ) Vz
γ 2 Vz I z = ( R + jω L ) ( G + jω C ) Vz Iz
γ= ( R + jω L ) ( G + jω C )
For an ideal line R and G are zero
37
38
Step Applied to Infinite Line
Voltage step will propagate down line
Energy is stored in line capacitance and
inductance
Energy from source appears to be dissipated
by line but is really stored
If line is infinitely long the step never reaches
the end
Voltage and current have definite, finite values
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Reflection of Voltage Step
Infinite line: no reflection
Finite line with load impedance ZL = Z0
no reflection
the load looks to the source like an extension of
the line
Voltage and currents are compatible
Z = √(L/C)
Finite line with load impedance ZL ≠ Z0
Some or all of the step will reflect from the load
end of the line
40
Reflection of Pulses
Transmission Line
R0
Short circuit
Reflection
hyperlink
41
Shorted Line
T = L/vp
42
Reflection of Pulses
Transmission Line
R0
Open Line
Reflection
hyperlink
43
Open-Circuited Line
44
Reflection Coefficient
More complex situation: Load has an arbitrary
impedance
not equal to Z0
45
Reflection Coefficient
The amount of voltage reflected back is
called voltage reflection coefficient.
Vr Ir
Γ = or
Vi Ii
Γ = reflection coefficient
Vi = incident voltage
Vr = reflected voltage
Ii = incident current
Ir = reflected current
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Reflection of Pulses
Transmission Line
Z0 ZL
Vi Vr total voltage = Vi + Vr
= = Z0
Ii I r
total current = I i − I r
Vi + Vr
= ZL
Ii − I r
Vr Ir ZL − Z0
Γ @ or Γ=
Vi Ii Z L + Z0
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Wave Propagation on Lines
48
Standing Waves
When an incident wave reflects from a mismatched
load, an interference pattern develops
Both incident and reflected waves move at the
propagation velocity, but the interference pattern is
stationary
The interference pattern is called a set of standing
waves
It is formed by the addition of incident and reflected
waves and has nodal points that remain stationary
with time
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Incident and Reflected Waves
50
Standing Waves
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Standing-Wave Ratio
When line is mismatched but neither
open nor shorted, voltage varies along
line without ever falling to zero
Greater mismatch leads to greater
variation
Voltage standing-wave ratio (VSWR or
SWR) is defined:
Vmax
SWR = ( ≥ 1)
Vmin
52
Z L − Z0
Standing waves Γ=
Z L + Z0
Vmax
SWR = ( ≥ 1)
Vmin
Vmax = Vi + Vr = Vi + Γ Vi
Vmin = Vi − Vr = Vi − Γ Vi
1+ Γ Z0 ZL SWR − 1
SWR = = or Γ=
1− Γ ZL Z0 SWR + 1
53
SWR and Reflection Coefficient
SWR is a positive real number
Γ may be positive, negative or complex
SWR ≥ 1
Magnitude of Γ ≤ 1
54
Standing waves on an Open Line
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Standing waves on an Shorted Line
56
Effects of High SWR
57
Reflected Power
58
SWR − 1
Γ=
Reflected Power SWR + 1
Pr = Γ Pi
2
PL = Pi (1 − Γ )2
4 SWR
PL = Pi
(1 + SWR ) 2
Pr = reflected power
Pi = incident power
PL = power delivered to load
59
Time-Domain Reflectometry
Reflecto
meter transmission line
reflection
v ⋅t
d=
2
60
General Input Impedance Equation
Input impedance of a transmissionline at a
distance L from the load impedance ZL with a
characteristic Zo is
Zinput = Zo [(ZL + j Zo BL)
(Zo + j ZL BL)]
where B is called phase constant or
wavelength constant and is defined by the
equation
B = 2
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Half and Quarter wave transmission lines
The relationship of the input impedance at the
input of the half-wave transmission line with its
terminating impedance is got by letting L =
in the impedance equation.
Zinput = ZL
The relationship of the input impedance at the
input of the quarter-wave transmission line with
its terminating impedance is got by letting L =
in the impedance equation.
Zinput = √(Zinput Zoutput )
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Effect of Lossy line on V and I waves
The effect of resistance in a transmission line is to
continuously reduce the amplitude of both incident and
reflected voltage and current waves.
Skin Effect: As frequency increases, depth of
penetration into adjacent conductive surfaces decreases
for boundary currents associated with electromagnetic
waves, that results in the confinement of the voltage and
current waves at the boundary of the transmission line,
thus making the transmission more lossy.
Skin depth (m) = 1 √ f
where f = frequency, Hz = permeability, H/m
= conductivity, S/m
63
Smith chart
Forcomplex transmission line problems, the use of the
formulae becomes increasingly difficult and
inconvenient. An indispensable graphical method of
solution is the use of Smith Chart.
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Components of a Smith Chart
Horizontal line: The horizontal line running through
the center of the Smith chart represents either the
resistive or the conductive component. Zero
resistance is located on the left end and infinite
resistance is located on the right end of the line.
Circles of constant resistance and conductance:
Circles of constant resistance are drawn on the Smith
chart tangent to the right-hand side of the chart and
its intersection with the centerline. These circles of
constant resistance are used to locate complex
impedances.
Lines of constant reactance: Lines of constant
reactance are shown on the Smith chart with curves
that start from a given reactance value on the outer
circle and end at the right-hand side of the center line.
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Type of Microwave problems that Smith
chart can be used
1. Plotting a complex impedance on a Smith chart
2. Finding VSWR for a given load
3. Finding the admittance for a given impedance
4. Finding the input impedance of a transmission line terminated in a
short or open.
5. Finding the input impedance at any distance from a load ZL.
6. Locating the first maximum and minimum from any load
7. Matching a transmission line to a load with a single series stub.
8. Matching a transmission line with a single parallel stub
9. Matching a transmission line to a load with two parallel stubs.
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Plotting a Complex Impedance on a
Smith Chart
To locate a complex impedance, Z = R+-jX or
admittance Y = G +- jB on a Smith chart,
normalize the real and imaginary part of the
complex impedance. Locating the value of the
normalized real term on the horizontal line scale
locates the resistance circle. Locating the
normalized value of the imaginary term on the
outer circle locates the curve of constant
reactance. The intersection of the circle and the
curve locates the complex impedance on the
Smith chart.
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Finding the VSWR for a given
load
Normalize the load and plot its location on
the Smith chart.
Draw a circle with a radius equal to the
distance between the 1.0 point and the
location of the normalized load and the
center of the Smith chart as the center.
The intersection of the right-hand side of
the circle with the horizontal resistance
line locates the value of the VSWR.
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Finding the Input Impedance at any
Distance from the Load
The load impedance is first normalized and is
located on the Smith chart.
The VSWR circle is drawn for the load.
A line is drawn from the 1.0 point through the
load to the outer wavelength scale.
To locate the input impedance on a Smith
chart of the transmission line at any given
distance from the load, advance in clockwise
direction from the located point, a distance in
wavelength equal to the distance to the new
location on the transmission line.
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Power Loss
Return Power Loss: When an electromagnetic
wave travels down a transmission line and
encounters a mismatched load or a discontinuity
in the line, part of the incident power is reflected
back down the line. The return loss is defined as:
Preturn = 10 log10 Pi/Pr
Preturn = 20 log10 1/
Mismatch Power Loss: The term mismatch loss
is used to describe the loss caused by the
reflection due to a mismatched line. It is defined
as
Pmismatch = 10 log10 Pi/(Pi - Pr)
70
Notes:
Metallic circuit current – currents that flow in
opposite directions in a balanced wire pair
Longitudinal current – currents that flow in the
same direction
Common Mode Rejection (CMR) – cancellation
of common mode signals or noise interference
induced equally on both wires producing
longitudinal currents that cancel in the load
CMRR = 40 to 70 dB
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Notes:
Primary electrical constants – R, L, C, G
Secondary constants – Zo, Propagation
Constant
For maximum power transfer, Z = Zo, thus no
L
reflection
Characteristic impedance = Surge impedance
Transmission line stores energy in its
distributed inductance and capacitance
72
Notes:
Transmission lines:
The input impedance of an infinitely long line at radio
frequencies is resistive and equal to Zo
Nonresonant – when electromagnetic waves travel
the line without reflections
Ratio of voltage to current at any point is equal to Zo
Incident voltage and current at any point are in phase
Line losses on a non-resonant line are minimum per
unit length
Any transmission line that is terminated in a load
equals to Zo acts as if it were an infinite line.
Prop. Cons. = attenuation coeff. + phase shift coeff.
γ = α + jβ
73
Notes:
Material Velocity Factor
air 0.95 – 0.975
rubber 0.56 – 0.65
polyethylene 0.66
teflon 0.70
teflon foam 0.82
teflon pins 0.81
teflon spiral 0.81
74
Notes:
Material Dielectric Constant
Vacuum 1
Air 1.0006
Teflon 2.1
polyethylene 2.27
polystyrene 2.5
paper, paraffined 2.5
rubber 3.0
PVC 3.3
Mica 5.0
Glass 7.5
75
Notes:
Velocity factor (Velocity constant) = actual vel. Of prop.
vel. In free space
Vf = Vp / c
Electrical length of transmission line
Long – length exceeds λ/16
76
Notes:
The disadvantages of not having a matched line:
100 percent of the source incident power does not
reach the load
The dielectric separating the two conductors can
break down and cause corona due to high VSWR
Reflections and rereflections cause more power loss
77
Notes:
Characteristics of transmission line terminated at open
voltage incident wave is reflected back (no phase
reversal)
current incident wave is reflected back 180 degrees
from how it would have continued
sum of the incident and reflected current waveforms
is minimum
sum of the incident and reflected voltage waveforms
is maximum
78
Notes:
Characteristics of transmission line terminated at short
voltage standing wave is reflected back 180 degrees
reversed from how it would have continued
current standing wave is reflected back the same as
if it had continued
sum of the incident and reflected current waveforms
is maximum
sum of the incident and reflected voltage waveforms
is zero at the short
79
Input Impedance
Series LC circuit,
Zin = resistive, min open resistive and minimum
λ/4
Input Output
end end
80
Notes:
The impedance transformation for a quarter wavelength
transmission line is:
R = Zo: quarter λ line acts 1:1 turns ratio transformer
L
81
Notes:
Stub Matching
Stubs are used to eliminate the reactive component
to match the transmission line to the load
It is just a piece of additional transmission line that is
placed across the primary line as close to the load as
possible
Susceptance of stub is used to tune out the
susceptance of the load
Shorted stubs are preferred because open stubs
have the tendency to radiate at higher frequencies
82
Notes:
Process of Stub Matching
locate a point as close to the load as possible where
the conductive component of the input admittance is
equal to the characteristic admittance of transmission
line Yin = G – jB, G = 1 / Zo
Attach the shorted stub to the point on the
transmission line
Depending whether the reactive component at the
point is inductive or capacitive, the stub length is
adjusted
Yin = Go – jB + jBstub
Yin = Go
83
Notes:
Time Domain Reflectometry (TDR)
technique used to locate an impairment in the
metallic cable
How much of the transmitted signal returns depends
on the type and magnitude of the impairment
Impairment represents a discontinuity in the signal
85
86
87
Problems:
1. Determine the characteristic impedance for an
air dielectric two-wire parallel transmission
line with a D/r ratio = 13.5 (311.97 ohms)
2. Determine the characteristic impedance for an
RG-59A coaxial cable with parameters:
L=0.121 μH/ft, C=30 pF/ft, d=0.042 in., D=0.22
in, and Є=2.15 (63.509 ohms, 67.685 ohms)
3. For a given length of RG8A/U coaxial cable
with parameters: C=98.4 pF/m, L=262.45 nH/m,
Єr=2.15. Find Vp and Vf (1.968x108 m/s, 0.656
or 0.682)
88
Problems:
4. For a transmission line with incident voltage of
5.2V and reflected voltage of 3.8V, find
reflection coefficient and SWR (0.731, 6.429)
5. Determine the physical length and Zo for a
quarter wavelength transformer that is used to
match a section of RG8A/U (Zo=50 ohms) to a
175 ohm resistive load. The frequency of
operation is 220 MHz and the velocity factor is
1 (0.341 m, 93.54 ohms)
89
Stub Matching
Use to remove the reactive component of the complex
impedance of the load to match the transmission line to the
load
It is a piece of additional transmission line that is placed
across the primary line as close to the load as possible
The susceptance of the stub is used to tune out the
susceptance of the load
Either a shorted or open stub is used with greater preference
on the shorted stub
A transmission line that is one-half wavelength or shorter is
used to tune out the reactive component of the load
90
Stub Matching Process
1. Locate a point as close as possible to the load
where the conductive component of the Zin = Zo
Yin = G – jB where G = 1 / Zo
2. Attach the shorted stub on the identified point
3. Depending on whether the reactive component at
that point is inductive or capacitive, the stub length
is adjusted accordingly
Yin = Go – jB + jBstub
~ Yin = Go
91