Semiconductors

Chapter 16
Electronics Fundamentals
Circuits, Devices and Applications - Floyd
Copyright 2007 Prentice-Hall
Chapter 16
Semiconductors
Summary
Semiconductors are crystalline materials that are characterized by specific energy bands for electrons. Energy Between the bands are gaps; these gaps represent energies Conduction band that electrons cannot posses.
The last energy band is the conduction band, where electrons are mobile. The next to the last band is the valence band, which is the energy level associated with electrons involved in bonding.
Circuits, Devices and Applications - Floyd Energy gap
Valence band
Energy gap
Second band
Energy gap
First band Nucleus
Chapter 16
Summary
Electron and hole current
At room temperature, some electrons have enough energy to jump into the conduction band.
After jumping the gap, these electrons are free to drift throughout the material and form electron current when a voltage is applied.
Energy
For every electron in the conduction band, a hole is left behind in the valence band.
Electronhole pair
Conduction band
Energy gap
Heat energy
Valence band
Chapter 16
Summary
Electron and hole current
The electrons in the conduction band and the holes in the valence band are the charge carriers. In other words, current in the conduction band is by electrons; current in the valence band is by holes.
When an electron jumps to the conduction band, valence electrons move from hole-to-hole in the valence band, effectively creating hole current shown by gray arrows.
Free electron
Si
Si
Si
Chapter 16
Impurities
Summary
By adding certain impurities to pure (intrinsic) silicon, more holes or more electrons can be produced within the crystal.
To increase the number of conduction band electrons, pentavalent impurities are added, forming an n-type semiconductor. These are elements to the right of Si on the Periodic Table. To increase the number of holes, trivalent impurities are added, forming a p-type semiconductor. These are elements to the left of Si on the Periodic Table.
III IV V B C N Al Si P Ga Ge As In Sn Sb
Chapter 16
Summary
The pn junction diode
When a pn junction is formed, electrons in the n-material diffuse across the junction and recombine with holes in the p-material. This action continues until the voltage of the barrier repels further diffusion. Further diffusion across the barrier requires the application of a voltage.
The pn junction is basically a diode, which is a device that allows current in only one direction. A few typical diodes are shown.
Chapter 16
Forward bias
Summary
When a pn junction is forward-biased, current is permitted. The bias voltage pushes conduction-band electrons in the n-region and holes in the p-region toward the junction where they combine.
p-region n-region p R n
The barrier potential in the depletion region must be overcome in order for the external source to cause current. For a silicon diode, this is about 0.7 V.
+
VBIAS
The forward-bias causes the depletion region to be narrow.

Chapter 16
Reverse bias
Summary
When a pn junction is reverse-biased, the bias voltage moves conduction-band electrons and holes away from the junction, so current is prevented.
p-region n-region
The diode effectively acts as an insulator. A relatively few electrons manage to diffuse across the junction, creating only a tiny reverse current.
p R
VBIAS
The reverse-bias causes the depletion region to widen.

Chapter 16
Summary
Diode characteristics
The forward and reverse characteristics are shown on a V-I characteristic curve.
In the forward bias region, current increases dramatically after the barrier potential (0.7 V for Si) is reached. The voltage across the diode remains approximately equal to the barrier potential.
IF
VBR (breakdown)
Forward bias
VR
Reverse bias
0.7 V Barrier potential
VF
The reverse-biased diode effectively acts as an insulator until breakdown is reached.

IR
Chapter 16
Diode models
Summary
The characteristic curve for a diode can be approximated by various models of diode behavior. The model you will IF use depends on your requirements.
The ideal model assumes the diode is either an open or closed switch. The practical model includes the VR barrier voltage in the approximation.
0.7 V Reverse bias Forward bias
VF
The complete model includes the forward resistance of the diode.

IR
Chapter 16
Summary
Half-wave Rectifier
Rectifiers are circuits that convert ac to dc. Special diodes, called rectifier diodes, are designed to handle the higher current requirements in these circuits.
The half-wave rectifier converts ac to pulsating dc by acting as a closed switch during the positive alteration.
+ D RL
The diode acts as an open switch during the negative alteration.

D + RL
Chapter 16
Summary
Full-wave Rectifier
The full-wave rectifier allows unidirectional current on both alterations of the input. The center-tapped full-wave rectifier uses two diodes and a center-tapped transformer.
The ac on each side of the center-tap is of the total secondary voltage. Only one diode will be biased on at a time.
F Vsec 2 Vsec 2 D2 RL D1
Chapter 16
Bridge Rectifier
Summary
The bridge rectifier is a type of full-wave circuit that uses four diodes. The bridge rectifier does not require a center-tapped transformer.
At any instant, two of the diodes are conducting and two are off.
F D3 D1
D2
D4
RL
Chapter 16
Summary
Peak inverse voltage
Diodes must be able to withstand a reverse voltage when they are reverse biased. This is called the peak inverse voltage (PIV). The PIV depends on the type of rectifier circuit and the maximum secondary voltage.
For example, in a full-wave circuit, if one diode is conducting (assuming 0 V drop), the other diode has the secondary voltage across it as you can see from applying KVL around the green path.
Notice that Vp(sec) = 2Vp(out) for the full-wave circuit because the output is referenced to the center tap.
0V Vsec
Chapter 16
Summary
Peak inverse voltage
For the bridge rectifier, KVL can be applied to a loop that includes two of the diodes. Assume the top diode is conducting (ideally, 0 V) and the lower diode is off. The secondary voltage will appear across the non-conducting diode in the loop.
Notice that Vp(sec) = Vp(out) for the bridge because the output is across the entire secondary.
0V Vsec
Chapter 16
Power supplies
Summary
By adding a filter and regulator to the basic rectifier, a basic power supply is formed.
Typically, a large electrolytic capacitor is used as a filter before the regulator, with a smaller one following the regulator to complete filtering action.
F D3 D1 7805 IC regulator
D2
D4
C1
1000 mF
C2
1 mF
Chapter 16
Summary
Special-purpose diodes
Special purpose diodes include

Zener diodes used for establishing a reference voltage Varactor diodes used as variable capacitors Light-emitting diodes used in displays Photodiodes used as light sensors
Chapter 16
Summary
Troubleshooting power supplies
Begin troubleshooting by analyzing the symptoms and how it failed. Try to focus on the most likely causes of failure.
A power supply has no output, but was working until a newly manufactured PC board was connected to it. (a) Analyze possible failures. (b) Form a plan for troubleshooting.
F D3 D1 7805 D2 D4 C1
1000 mF
IC regulator
C2
1 mF
Chapter 16
Summary

The supply had been working, so the problem is not likely to be an incorrect part or wiring problem. The failure was linked to the fact that a new PC board was connected to it, which points to a possible overloading problem. If the load was too much for the supply, it is likely a fuse would have blown, or a part would likely have overheated, accounting for the lack of output.
F D3 D1 7805 D2 D4 C1
1000 mF
IC regulator
C2
1 mF
Chapter 16
Summary
Based on the analysis, a sample plan is as follows. (It can be modified as circumstances warrant.)
1. Disconnect power and check the fuse. If it is bad, replace it. Before reapplying power, remove the load, open the power supply case, and look for evidence of overheating (such as discolored parts or boards). If no evidence of overheating proceed. 2. Check the new pc board (the load) for a short or overloading of the power supply that would cause the fuse to blow. Look for evidence of overheating. 3. Verify operation of the supply with measurements (see next slide).
Chapter 16
Summary
The analysis showed that a likely cause of failure was due to an overload. For the measurement step, it may be as simple as replacing the fuse and confirming that the supply works. After replacing the fuse:
Reapply power to the supply but with no load. If the output is okay, put a resistive test load on the power supply and measure the output to verify it is operational. If the output is correct, the problem is probably with the new pc board. If not, you will need to further refine the analysis and plan, looking for an internal problem.
Chapter 16
Selected Key Terms
Majority carrier The most numerous charge carrier in a doped semiconductor material (either free electrons or holes. Minority carrier The least numerous charge carrier in a doped semiconductor material (either free electrons or holes. PN junction The boundary between n-type and p-type semiconductive materials. Diode An electronic device that permits current in only one direction.
Chapter 16
Selected Key Terms
Barrier The inherent voltage across the depletion potential region of a pn junction diode. Forward bias The condition in which a diode conducts current. Reverse bias The condition in which a diode prevents current.
Full-wave A circuit that converts an alternating sinerectifier wave into a pulsating dc consisting of both halves of a sine wave for each input cycle.
Chapter 16
Selected Key Terms
Bridge rectifier A type of full-wave rectifier consisting of diodes arranged in a four corner configuration. Zener diode A type of diode that operates in reverse breakdown (called zener breakdown) to provide a voltage reference. Varactor A diode used as a voltage-variable capacitor.
Photodiode A diode whose reverse resistance changes with incident light.
Chapter 16
Quiz
1. An energy level in a semiconductor crystal in which electrons are mobile is called the
a. barrier potential. b. energy band. c. conduction band. d. valence band.
Chapter 16
Quiz
2. A intrinsic silicon crystal is

a. a poor conductor of electricity. b. an n-type of material.
c. a p-type of material.
d. an excellent conductor of electricity.
Chapter 16
Quiz
3. A small portion of the Periodic Table is shown. The elements highlighted in yellow are
a. majority carriers. b. minority carriers. c. trivalent elements. d. pentavalent elements.
III IV V B C N Al Si P Ga Ge As In Sn Sb
Chapter 16
Quiz
4. At room temperature, free electrons in a p-material

a. are the majority carrier. b. are the minority carrier.
c. are in the valence band.

d. do not exist.
Chapter 16
Quiz
5. The breakdown voltage for a silicon diode is reached when

a. the forward bias is 0.7 V. b. the forward current is greater than 1 A. c. the reverse bias is 0.7 V. d. none of the above.
Chapter 16
Quiz
6. The circuit shown is a

a. half-wave rectifier. b. full-wave rectifier.
c. bridge rectifier.
d. zener regulator.
Chapter 16
Quiz
7. PIV stands for

a. Positive Ion Value. b. Programmable Input Varactor.
c. Peak Inverse Voltage.

d. Primary Input Voltage.
Chapter 16
Quiz
8. A type of diode used a a voltage-variable capacitor is a

a. varactor. b. zener.
c. rectifier.
d. LED.
Chapter 16
Quiz
9. If one of the four diodes in a bridge rectifier is open, the output will
a. be zero. b. have as many pulses as normal. c. have as many pulses as normal. d. be unaffected.
Chapter 16
Quiz
10. When troubleshooting a power supply that has a bridge rectifier, begin by
a. replacing the bridge rectifier. b. replacing the transformer. c. making measurements. d. analyzing the symptoms and how it failed.
Chapter 16
Quiz
Answers:
1. c 2. a 6. b 7. c
3. c
4. b 5. d
8. a
9. b 10. d

Semiconductors

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Chapter 16

Copyright 2007 Prentice-Hall

First band Nucleus

Copyright 2007 Prentice-Hall

Electron and hole current

Copyright 2007 Prentice-Hall

Electron and hole current

Copyright 2007 Prentice-Hall

The pn junction diode

Copyright 2007 Prentice-Hall

The forward-bias causes the depletion region to be narrow.

Copyright 2007 Prentice-Hall

The reverse-bias causes the depletion region to widen.

Copyright 2007 Prentice-Hall

0.7 V Barrier potential

The reverse-biased diode effectively acts as an insulator until breakdown is reached.

The complete model includes the forward resistance of the diode.

Copyright 2007 Prentice-Hall

The diode acts as an open switch during the negative alteration.

Copyright 2007 Prentice-Hall

Copyright 2007 Prentice-Hall

Copyright 2007 Prentice-Hall

Peak inverse voltage

Copyright 2007 Prentice-Hall

Peak inverse voltage

Copyright 2007 Prentice-Hall

Copyright 2007 Prentice-Hall

Special purpose diodes include

Copyright 2007 Prentice-Hall

Troubleshooting power supplies

Copyright 2007 Prentice-Hall

Troubleshooting power supplies

Copyright 2007 Prentice-Hall

Troubleshooting power supplies

Copyright 2007 Prentice-Hall

Troubleshooting power supplies

Copyright 2007 Prentice-Hall

Selected Key Terms

Copyright 2007 Prentice-Hall

Selected Key Terms

Copyright 2007 Prentice-Hall

Selected Key Terms

Photodiode A diode whose reverse resistance changes with incident light.

Copyright 2007 Prentice-Hall

Copyright 2007 Prentice-Hall

2. A intrinsic silicon crystal is

Copyright 2007 Prentice-Hall

Copyright 2007 Prentice-Hall

4. At room temperature, free electrons in a p-material

c. are in the valence band.

Copyright 2007 Prentice-Hall

5. The breakdown voltage for a silicon diode is reached when

Copyright 2007 Prentice-Hall

6. The circuit shown is a

Copyright 2007 Prentice-Hall

7. PIV stands for

c. Peak Inverse Voltage.

Copyright 2007 Prentice-Hall

8. A type of diode used a a voltage-variable capacitor is a

Copyright 2007 Prentice-Hall

Copyright 2007 Prentice-Hall

Copyright 2007 Prentice-Hall

Copyright 2007 Prentice-Hall

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