Lecture -8

Post-Colonial South Asia: Governance, religion, ethnicity and politics, military in politics and intra-state conflicts-I

Six states in the region A unique geographical composition Structural weaknesses Military-bureaucracy Oligarchy Politico-economic crisis Polarized societies Power deficit Feudalism Patriarchy Inter-state disputes Quasi-democracies

SRI LANKA

Evolved as a multi-ethnic and multi-religious society, with almost equal influences of Buddhism and Hinduism. Culturally, society experienced an amalgamation of Buddhist, Hindu, Muslim and western traditions. Immigrations, colonial invasions, and trade interactions led to the formation of a number of ethnic groups, each with its own language and culture. The society though divided ethnically, was a progressive one. Sinhala and Tamil languages are official languages; however, English is considered a connecting language.

Ceylon gained independence in 1948. The history of the country dates back to Palaeolithic and Iron ages; some 500,000 years BP. The earliest references to this land are found in Hindu epic Ramayana, where a kingdom of Lanka was created for the Lord of the Wealth. During 42-47 BC, Sri Lanka was ruled by a female queen, Queen Anula. Portuguese arrived in the region in 16th century (1505) and established their control over the port city of Colombo. The Kingdom of Vimaladharmasurya-I was moved to the island city of Kandy. Intermittent warfare continued and the independent status of Jaffna Kingdom ended (1619).

British arrived in the region in late 18th century (1796) and established their control over the coastal region which they named as Ceylon. The monarch and Sri Lankan forces resisted British East India Company, however; during second Kandyan War in 1815, Sri Lanka lost its independence. The Colebrook-Cameron reforms in 1833, retained a utilitarian and liberal political culture in the country. Rebellion against the British continued and in 1848, Tea cultivation began, when the British tried to settle 15 years of deterioration of coffee plantation. By the end of 19th century as a result of British attempts towards forming a range of professionals for the Ceylon Civil Service, and for the legal, medical and educational professions.

Donoughmor Commission ruled Ceylon from1931-1947. Ceylon experienced elections and in 1937, Tamil leader demanded 50-50% representation. The following Soulbury Constitution established Dominion Status for Ceylon (autonomous polities under the British sovereign) in 1948 till 1972. Attempts were made to strengthen Sinhala culture and language as the only official language and influential culture. Ceylon became federal republic in 1972 and opted for Sri Lanka as official name.

Sri Lankas transition to Dominion Status and then independent status was not smooth. Minority-majority ethnic conflict arose.

In 1977, economic reforms were introduced and Sri Lankan economy was liberalized.
Ethnic unrest led to an armed insurgency.

LTTE separatist movement was launched in 1983 and continued till 2009. The movement called for the creation of independent Tamil state in north and east of Sri Lanka. LTTE possessed a well-trained militia and carried out barbaric highprofile attacks. The movement was also a case of high level internal displacements. The ideology of LTTE emerged from Marxist-Leninist thought and was secular. Tamil Tigers were declared terrorists by 32 countries. The movement ended following the killing of its leader by the Sri Lankan Army in 2009.

NEPAL

Caste-based divisions and ethnic diversity, with 54 castes and predominantly Hindu practices. Poverty-ridden society/economy. Social conservatism/patriarchy Monarchy Royal-Nobility influences Suppression of freedom of expression Isolationism Predominantly rural life Women Trafficking (thriving industry) Around 123 languages are spoken across Nepal.

Monarchs ruled Nepal for around 250 years. From 15th to mid-18th century, the territory of present-day Nepal remained divided into three regions: Kathmandu, Patan and Bhaktapur. In mid-18th century, Prithvi Narayan Shah, a Gorkha King, brought together the territories which later became todays Nepal. In early 19th century, the rivalry between the British East India Company and Nepal over the annexation of minor states bordering Nepal led to Anglo-Nepalese war in 1815-16. British forces were defeated by Gorkhas.

A treaty signed between the British and Nepal, provided Nepal with an autonomous status and allowed British to recruit Gorkhas into Royal Army. In 1923, a friendship agreement was signed between the British and Nepal. A power rivalry between Shahs and Ranas continued. In 1955, Shahs took power.

Although Nepal remained an autonomous territory, colonial influences maligned politics in Nepal. Army was trained by the Royal Army and Ranas had been staunch supporters of the British. After coming to power, Shahs also maintained autocratic policies. Several systems as alternative to democracy were introduced, such as partyless panchayat system (196089).

Maoist faction of Communist Party of Nepal launched an insurgency against the monarchy in February 1996. Initially, the Monarch considered Jana Andolan a law and order problem and was against deploying the RNA (Royal Nepalese Army, which has been loyal to the monarch).

In 2001, following the massacre of King Birendra, RNA was deployed against the rebels only to worsen the situation.
The rebellion had stretched to 65 out 70 districts of Nepal. After 10 years of struggle, monarch was abdicated in 2006. Transition to democracy has not been smooth, the state and society is struggling to adapt to democratic norms.

http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/plaintexthistories.asp ?historyid=ac68 H. R. Perera, Buddhism in Sri Lanka: A Short History, http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/perera/wheel1 00.html Nabiha Gul, Political Transition in Nepal: From Maoist Insurgency to Democracy, BIISS Journal (Dhaka), Vol. 31, No. 3, July 2010.